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^SMITH'S ENGLISH GRAMMAR. 



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English Language 



WILLIAM FEWSMITH, A.M., 

PRINCIPAL OF AN ENGliSH AND CLASSICAL SCHOOL, 
AND 

EDGAR A. SINGER, 

PRINCIPAL CF ZANE STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOL, 



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PHILADELPHIA: 

SOWER, BARNES & POTTS, 

37 North Third Street. 
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^UNITED STATES OF AMERICA.* 









GRAMMAR 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



/ BY 

WILLIAM FEWSMITH, A.M., 

PBINCIPA1 OF AN ENGLISH AND CLASSICAL SCHOOL, 

EDGAR APSINGER, 

PRINCIPAL OF ZANE STREET GRAMMAR SCHOOL. 




i 

PHILADELPHIA: 

SOWER, BARNES & POTTS, 

37 NORTH THIRD STREET. 
18 66. 









Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the year 1S66, by 

SOWER, BARNES & POTTS, 

in the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States for the Eastern 



District of Pennsylvania. 



STEREOTYPED BY L. JOHNSON & CO. 

PHILADELPHIA. 

FEINTED BY KING & BATES. 



PREFACE. 



Since there are already numerous works on the " Grammar of the 
English Language," not one of which is entirely without merit, the ques- 
tion may well be asked why another should be added to the number. 

Perhaps the best reply to this inquiry will be to specify those charac- 
teristics which, the authors hope, will recommend this book to the 
favorable consideration of their fellow-teachers and of all others inter- 
ested in the cause of education. 

They trust that the work will be found, on examination, to be plain 
and practical, to be simple in its outlines and in its details, and to be 
adapted equally to the class-room and to the study. Such at least is its 
design ; and, with this constantly in view, the authors' aim has been to 
pursue a course midway between the extremes of prolixity and concise- 
ness. They have desired to say just enough to make the subject plain, — 
further to explain that enough by examples and models, — and still fur- 
ther to enforce it by numerous exercises involving the principles which 
those exercises are designed to illustrate. 

They have desired, by simplicity of arrangement, by clearness of state- 
ment, by the avoidance of unnecessary words, and by the absence of 
theories and speculations, to create in the mind of the pupil a conscious- 
ness that the principles of the language are not beyond his comprehen- 
sion, and that he can master each principle and its application as it comes 
before him. 

The usual division of Grammar into four parts is followed ; and each is 
treated of before the introduction of the succeeding part, because it is 
believed to be the experience of the best teachers that the pupil can ac- 
quire a knowledge of the subject more easily and more thoroughly by 
having his attention directed to but one thing at a time. 

In order to render the work thoroughly progressive, nothing is antici- 
pated when anticipation can possibly be avoided ; and no part, or divi- 
sion, or subdivision, is introduced, without explanation or some reference 
by which the mind of the pupil is prepared for its reception, until the 
portion under present consideration has been thoroughly treated. Thus 
the pupil is enabled to advance intelligently ; and the teacher enjoys the 
satisfaction of knowing that his pupils understand what they are learning. 



4 PREFACE. 

In Orthography are given a simple explanation of the nature and of 
the classes of letters, and the most important rules for spelling simple, 
derivative, and compound words. 

In Etymology, the different parts of speech are given ; their nature is 
explained ; and their various uses and applications are illustrated. The 
nomenclature and the arrangement of the tenses now becoming general, 
have been adopted ; and the names of the participles given by Mr. Goold 
Brown have been used, because they are considered to be such as the 
nature of the participles requires, — the most logical, and therefore the 
best. 

Syntax is introduced with explanations of sentences and of their dif- 
ferent kinds and forms, — in which the ideas of simple, complex, and com- 
pound are kept prominent, as in the treatment of words. A division of this 
part into Analysis and Synthesis is then made. The portion assigned to 
Analysis, including the models and exercises, occupies about twenty pages ; 
the design being to present a practical outline of all that is necessary to 
a complete understanding of the subject. Under Synthesis, the Rules of 
Syntax, with accompanying notes and exercises, are given in a form well 
adapted to didactic instruction. Although the analysis of sentences is 
regarded as of paramount importance, it has been left to the discretion 
of the teacher whether parsing and analysis shall be taught together, or 
whether they shall be taught separately ; each forms a distinct subject, but 
both are so arranged that any point in either may be readily consulted. 

Punctuation is given under Syntax, because it is intimately connected 
with sentences, modifying their meaning to a very great extent. For the 
same reason, Figures have been introduced under the same head. 

Prosody, as its definition and use require, treats only of verse and of 
the quantity of syllables, of accent, and of the laws of versification. 

With this brief summary, and with thanks to those teachers and others 
who have offered suggestions, the authors send forth their work, hoping 
that it may be favorably received, where other books, more voluminous 
or of a less practical character, have proved unsatisfactory. 

An elementary work, designed as an introduction to this, is now in 
course of preparation. 

Philadelphia, July 3, 1866. 



CONTENTS. 



PAGE 

Grammar. Definition and Division 9 



PART I. — ORTHOGRAPHY. 

Letters, Definitions and Classes of . . . . . .10 

Words 12 

Spelling 13 

Rules of 13 

General Exercises in 16 



PART II. — ETYMOLOGY. 

Classes of "Words 17 

Parts of Speech, Definitions of 17 

Nouns, Classes of 19 

Properties of 20 

Number 20 

Formation of the Plural 21 

Person 26 

Gender 26 

Case 30 

Declension of 31 

Parsing 32 

Exercises in 32 

Pronouns 34 

Properties of ........ 34 

Classes of 34 

Personal 34 

Compound Personal 36 

Relative 37 

Compound Relative 39 

Interrogative 40 

1* 5 



6 CONTENTS. 

PAGB 

Articles . . .42 

Adjectives 44 

Classes of 44 

Pronominal 45 

Comparison of . . 47 

Verbs 50 

Classes of, according to meaning 51 

Properties of 52 

Voice . . . . . . . . .52 

Mode 53 

Tense 55 

Number and Person 58 

Participles 58 

Classes of, according to formation .... 61 

Principal Parts 61 

List of Irregular Verbs 61 

Defective .66 

List of 66 

Auxiliary .67 

Conjugation of 68 

Auxiliaries 68 

To Be 70 

To Love, Active Voice, 75 

To Love, Passive Voice 78 

Progressive Forin, To Learn 81 

Interrogative Form, To See 83 

Negative Form 84 

Negative-Interrogative Form 85 

Adverbs 88 

Classes of . 89 

Conjunctive ......... 90 

Comparison of 90 

Prepositions . .92 

Classes of "... 93 

Conjunctions 95 

Classes of 95 

Interjections . . . 97 

Classes of 97 

"Words used as different Parts of Speech . . . . .98 

General Exercises in Parsing 100 



CONTEXTS. 



PART III. — SYNTAX. 

PAGE 

Sentences, Definition of . 9 . . . . . . . 102 

Classes of, according to use 102 

Classes of, according to form . . . . . . 103 

Divisions of Syntax 107 

Analysis 107 

Distinctions of Subject and Predicate . . . 109 

Simple Subject and Simple Predicate . . . 109 
Complex Subject and Complex Predicate 109, 110 

Compound Subject and Compound Predicate . 110 
Exercises on Subjects and Predicates . Ill, 113 

Independent Parts 114 

Qualifications of Simple Subject . .*'.'. . 115 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words .... 116 

Qualifications of Simple Predicate . . . 118 

Qualifications of Qualifying Words .... 119 

Classification of Phrases 120 

Classification of Dependent Clauses 121 

Analysis of Sentences 122 

General Exercises in Analysis 126 

Synthesis 129 

Rules or Syntax 130 

Kule I.— Subject of Finite Verb 131 

Rule II. — Nominative Case Independent .... 134 

Rule III. — Possessive Case 137 

Rule IV.— Objective Case 141 

Rule V. — Apposition 145 

Rule YI.— Same Case after Verbs 148 

Rule VII. — Personal Pronouns 150 

Rule VIII. — Relative Pronouns 154 

Rule IX.— Articles 159 

Rule X.— Adjectives 163 

Rule XI. — Pronominal Adjectives .... 167 

Rule XII. — Agreement of Finite Verbs .... 170 

Rule XIII.— Infinitives . . . . . 175 

Rule XIV.— Participles * . 178 

Rule XV.— Adverbs 182 

Rule XVI.— Prepositions 185 

Rule XVII.— Conjunctions 190 

Rule XVIII.— Interjections 195 

General Rule 195 



5 CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

General Exercises in False Syntax . . . . . . 199 

Punctuation 208 

Period 208 

Interrogation Point, Exclamation Point . . . 209 

Colon, Semicolon . . . . . . . . 210 

Comma . . . 211 

Dash, Curves 214 

Brackets 215 

Other Marks used in Writing 215 

Capitals 216 

Figures 217 

Classes of 217 

Figures of Orthography ....... 217 

Figures of Etymology 218 

Figures of Syntax 218 

Figures of Khetoric 219 



PART IV. — PROSODY. 

Verse 222 

Kinds of 222 

Versification 223 

Feet 223 

Kinds of Feet . 223 

Denominations of Verse 224 

Scanning .......... 224 

Iambic Verse ........ 225 

Trochaic Verse 226 

Anapestic Verse 226 

Dactylic Verse 227 

Amphibraic Verse 228 

Mixed Verse 228 

Poetic Pauses 228 



GRAMMAR 



OF THE 



ENGLISH LANGUAGE. 



Grammar is the science which treats of the correct use 
of language. 

Science means the principles of some branch of knowledge arranged 
according to a regular system or order. 

Language is the means by which human beings express their 
thoughts. Language is either spoken or written. 

English Grammar is the science which treats of the 
correct use of the English language, both in speaking and 
in writing. 

English Grammar may be divided into four parts; — 
Orthography, Etymology, Syntax, and Prosody. 

Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to spell 
correctly. 

Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify 
them, and shows their changes of form and meaning. 

Syntax treats of Sentences, and teaches how to construct 
them from words. 

Prosody treats of Verse, and teaches how to arrange 
words according to the principles of Versification. 

9 



10 CLASSES OF LETTERS — VOWELS. 



Part First. 
ORTHOGRAPHY. 



Orthography treats of Letters, and teaches how to 
spell correctly. 

Letters are particular marks or signs used to represent certain 
sounds of the human voice. 

The sounds of all words in the English language can be repre- 
sented by different combinations of the twenty-six letters in its 
alphabet. 

CLASSES OP LETTEES. 
Letters are divided into two classes; Vowels and Con- 
sonants. 

A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect 
sound; as, a, e, o. 

A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound which 
can be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel; as, /, 

VOWELS. 
A Vowel is a letter which represents a simple, perfect 
sound. 

The vowels are a, e, i, o, u, and sometimes w and y. 

W and y are vowels when they end a word or a syllable, or are 
followed in the same syllable by a vowel which is not sounded ; as 
in snow, lowly, dye. In all other positions they are consonants. 



DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 11 

All the other letters are consonants. 

Exercise. — Mention the vowels and the consonants in the following 
words, and give the reasons: — Animal, muslin, grammar, thousand, moun- 
tain, happiness, board, school, arithmetic, December, bread, wonder, 
beware, dwell, youth, destiny, myrtle, sympathy, knawledge, lawyer, 
strength, journey, phlegm, plague, weigh. 

DIPHTHONGS AND TRIPHTHONGS. 

When two vowels are used to represent one sound, they 
form what is called a Diphthong ; as oa in load; oi in voice. 

There are two kinds of diphthongs; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Diphthong is one in which both vowels are sounded ; as, 
ou in mouse ; oy in joyful. There are four proper diphthongs ; oi, 
ou, oy, and ow. 

An Improper Diphthong is one in which but one of the vowels is 
sounded ; as, ea in beat ; eu in neuter. 

When three vowels are used to represent one sound, 
they form what is called a Triphthong ; as, eau in beauty ; 
iew in view. 

There are two kinds of triphthongs ; Proper and Improper. 

A Proper Triphthong is one in which all three vowels are sounded ; 
as, uoy in buoy. 

An Improper Triphthong is one in which but one or two of the 
vowels are sounded ; as eye, and ieu in lieu. The principal improper 
triphthongs are, ieu, eau, iew. 

The consonant q is always followed by u; when so 
placed, u is never considered as part of a diphthong or 
a triphthong. 

Exercise. — Mention the proper and the improper diphthongs and 
triphthongs in the following words, and give the reasons : — Moaning, 
employ, outset, beauty, though, plough, review, chair, growling, 
lieu, slaughter, news, learn, coast, thief, loud, buoy, quoit, eye, 
gracious, herbaceous, outlie, broad, heroes, receive, ocean, beaus. 



12 CONSONANTS — SYLLABLES — WORDS. 

CONSONANTS. 
A Consonant is a letter which represents a sound which 
can be perfectly made only with the aid of a vowel. 

The consonants are divided into two classes ; Semi-vowels and 
Mutes. 

Semi-VOWels are letters which can be imperfectly sounded without 
-the aid of a vowel ; as, c, j, v, y. 

They are c soft, f, g soft, Ji, j, I, m, n, r, s, v, w, x, y, and z. 

C has its soft sound (the sound of s) before e, i, and y; before 
other letters it has the sound of k. 

G has its soft sound (the sound of j) before e, i, and y; there are, 
however, some exceptions. 

Four of the semi-vowels, I, m, n, and r, are called Liquids, on 
account of their smooth aDd flowing sound. 

Mutes are letters which can not be sounded without the aid of a 
vowel ; as, p, q, t, Jc. 

They are b, c hard, d, g hard, Jc, p, q, and t. 

SYLLABLES. 

A Syllable is a letter or a number of letters, which, 
when uttered, form one sound ; as, far, a-far, com-mence. 

A syllable may be either a word or a part of a word ; it always 
contains a vowel, — or, when spoken, a vowel sound. 

WOEDS. 

A Written "Word is a letter, or a number of letters pro- 
perly combined, used as the sign of some idea; as, i, day, 
army. 

A Spoken Word is a sound, or a combination of sounds, 
used to express some idea. 

Words are named according to the number of syllables which they 
contain. 

A word which contains one syllable is called a Mono- 
syllable; as, truth: one which contains two syllables is 



DIVISION OF WOKDS — SPELLING — RULES, ETC. 13 

called a Dissyllable; as, truthful: one which contains 
three syllables is callea a Trisyllable; as, untruthful: one 
which contains more than three syllables is called a Poly- 
syllable ; as, untruthfulness , incomprehensible. 

DIVISION OF WORDS. 

"Words are divided according to their formation into Simple, or 
Compound ; Primitive, or Derivative. 

A Silfcple Word is one which is not formed by uniting two or more 
words or parts of words ; as, hand, paper, father. 

A Compound Word is one which is formed by the union of two or 
more simple words ; as, hand-machine, newspaper. The words form- 
ing a compound are sometimes connected by the hyphen ( - ) ; as, 
father-in-law. 

A Primitive Word is one which is formed from no other word, and 
is in its first or simplest form ; as, sin, wind, lady. 

A Derivative Word is one which is formed from a primitive word 
by some change, or by prefixing or suffixing another syllable or 
word ; as, sinful, windy, lady-like. 

Exercise. — Tell to which of the above divisions each of the following 
words belongs, and give the reason : — Breakfast, fleetness, spice, lover, 
within, uneasy, self-taught, teach, statesman, write, movable, president, 
circle, prison-ship, copying, useful, store-house, citizen, chief, harmed, 
certain, poet, penman, outlaw, evergreen, star-gazer. 

SPELLINGS 

Spelling is the art of combining letters properly, to form 
syllables and words. This art is best learned from spelling- 
books, dictionaries, and from habits of observation in 
reading. 

RULES OF SPELLING. 

Monosyllables. — 1. The final letter of a monosyllable ending 
withy, I, or s, preceded by a single vowel, is doubled; as, muff, bill, 
moss. 

2 



14 RULES OF SPELLING. 

2. The final letter of a monosyllable ending with any other con- 
sonant is not doubled ; as, bar, rag, rod. 

Exceptions. — Clef, if of; nil, sol; as, gas, has, was, yes, Ms, 
is, us, pus, thus; ebb; add, odd; egg ; inn, bunn; burr, err; butt ; 
buzz, fuzz. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule for spelling each of the following words, and 
correct all false orthography : — Mil, uss, eg, hass, clef, carr, tel, fiz, 
fil, ad, nodd, pas, fuz, pur, mis, was, robb, hill, war. 

Doubling the Final Consonant. — 1. The final consonant 
of a monosyllable, or of a word accented on the last syllabl#ending 
with a single consonant preceded by a single vowel, is doubled on 
receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel ; as, hot, hotter; occur, 
occurring; transfer, transferring. 

2. The final consonant is not doubled, if it is not preceded by a 
single vowel, if it is preceded by one or more consonants, or if the 
accent is not on the last syllable ; as, toil, toiling; sound, sounded; 
differ, different. 

Final x is never doubled, being equivalent to the two consonants 
ksovgz; as, fix, fixed; tax, taxing. 

The spelling of derivatives from words ending with single I is 
variable. Some writers double the I even in words not accented on 
the last syllable ; while others strictly follow the rule. It is prefer- 
able to follow the general rule ; as, travel, traveler. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix ed to tap, tax, incur, inter, retreat, enter; ing to sound, ac- 
quit, recruit, shed, drip, shoot; er to cool, loud, work, mix, labor; 
ist to novel, art, algebra, humor; ent to excel, depend, concur. 

Final E. — 1. In words ending with silent e, e is generally omitted 
on receiving a suffix beginning with a vowel; as, move, movable ; 
love, loved; able, abler. 

In words ending with ce or ge, e is retained before terminations 
beginning with a, o, or u, in order to preserve the soft sounds of c 
and g; as, trace, traceable; courage, courageous. 

In words ending with ie, e is omitted and i changed into y before 
the termination ing, in order to prevent the doubling of i; as, tie. 
tying; belie, belying. 

E is retained in dye, singe, springe, swinge, tinge, hoe, shoe, and 
toe, before the termination ing; as, dye, dyeing ; shoe, shoeing. 



RULES OF SPELLING. 15 

2. In words ending with silent e, e is generally retained on receiving 
a suffix beginning with a consonant ; as, dire, direful; care, careless. 

The following words are exceptions: — Abridgment, acknowledg- 
ment, argument, judgment, duly, truly, awful, nursling, wisdom, 
wholly. 

Exekcise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix ing or ed to rage, untie, hoe, die, dye, sing, singe, budge; able 
to service, manage, peace, charge, notice, change; ible to force, sense, re- 
verse; ment to refine, commence, advance, induce; ly to wide, safe, rude, 



"Words ending with Y. — 1. In words ending with y pre- 
ceded by a consonant, y is changed into i on receiving one or more 
suffixed letters or syllables ; as, try, tries ; lively, liveliest. 

Yis not changed into i before the termination ing; as, dry, dry- 
ing; rely, relying. 

2. In words ending with y preceded by a vowel, y is retained on 
receiving one or more suffixed letters or syllables ; as, money, moneys; 
joy, joyful; pay, payable. 

Paid from pay, laid from lay, said and saith from say, staid from 
l, and daily from day, are exceptions. 



Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words:— 
Suffix ed to pry, deny ; es to lady, dry, fancy, try ; ly to greedy, lazy, day, 
hungry, steady; ing to rely, ally, cry, defy, enjoy, pay, obey; ish to boy, 
gray ; ed to convey, employ, waylay, prepay. 

Words ending with a Double Letter. — In words end- 
ing with any double letter except I, the double letter is retained on 
receiving a suffix which does not commence with the same letter ; 
as, puff, puffing ; careless, carelessly. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffixing to witness, pun', buzz; ly to full, stiff; es to pass, dress, moss; 
est to tall, dull, gross. 

Compounds. — In compound words, the simple words from which 
they are formed are generally spelled in the same manner as when 
alone ; as, scoop-net, blue-eyed, paymaster. 

In words ending with II, one I is often dropped when forming part 
of a compound or derivative word ; as, all, also; till, until; except 
allspice, and a few others. 



16 RULES OF SPELLING — EXEECISES. 

Exercise. — Apply the rule in forming each of the following words: — 
Suffix full to sin, cup, play; prefix all to mighty, so, ways, spice. Write 
compounds from pen and knife; heart and felt; eye and sight; salt and 
cellar. Form and write ten other compounds. 

General Exercise I. — Apply the rules in the correction of the 
following words : — 

Spil, expresing, staf, stifness, joiful, od, holyness, arriveal, cryed, 
novellist, drumer, payed, thiner, beatting, wholely, shamefull, carpet- 
ting, dieing, mixxing, poundded, ^ chargable, hoing, eying, bel-ringer, 
sprigy, counsellor, biassing, acquiting, recruitting, boilled, inferrence, 
mouthfull, peacable, hotest, judgement, impeled, defyed, allso, steadyly, 
untill, noticable, inducment, studys, vallies, ceasless, wittyly, wellfare, 
bruteish, moveable, armys, reasonner, senseible, benefitted. 

General Exercise II. — Correct the spelling in the following sen- 
tences, and apply the rule for each correction : — 

Artfull practices should be avoided. Never expect to obtain true happy- 
ness without virtue. The vallies among those cheerles mountains are not 
often visitted by the raies of the sun. I can not go untill the expres-train 
shall have arrived. The surly fellow answered grufly to my playfull remark. 
The soldier displaid great courage on the battle-field. The armys were well 
supplyed with wholsome food. The arguement of the lawyer proved the 
shamefull conduct of the prisoner. Bad beginings somtimes end in succes. 
The rogueish boies were caught stealling the neighbor's apples. 

We can not injure others without injureing ourselves. The commitee re- 
fused to sign the bill which was refered to them. The recruitting officer ac- 
quited the soldier of the charge of desertion. Although he was the hum- 
bleest of the unhappy queen's followers, yet he remainned faithful untill 
the last moment. Our chimnies are very smokey in winddy weather. As he 
payed no attention to his speling he wass unable to rise in his clas. Be 
careful to shunn the company of the silly andviceious. A spent bal wounded 
two officers of his staf while standding near him. The battle which fol- 
lowed was one of the bloodyest of the warr. 

Truthfullnes is better than mere refinment of manners. His palness was 
attributeable to his excesive fright. Dayly newspapers were a great rarity 
a hundred years ago. Delaies are usualy dangerous. The culprit was re- 
lieved of his handcufs. Flocks of wild turkies are now seldom seen. The 
smaler of the two books is to be prefered. Clouds envelopped the tops of the 
mountains. This gloryous news has fullfiled our highest hopes. You are 
inexcuseable for makeing such mistakes as these. Carlesness is allways de- 
serving of censure. 



Part Second. 
ETYMOLOGY. 



Etymology treats of Words, teaches how to classify 
them, and shows their changes of form and meaning. 

Words are Classified, Inflected, and Derived. 

To Classify words is to arrange them in classes according to their 
meaning and use. (See below.) 

To Inflect words is to change their forms, so as to show their rela- 
tions to other words. (See pages 31, etc.) 

To Derive words is to trace them from their primitive forms and 
meanings. 

All that is at present necessary to be known of the origin and of 
the different forms of words, has been given under "Divisions of 
Words." (See page 13.) Further information must be gained from 
books on this subject, as it can not be fully treated of in grammar. 

GLASSES OP WOKDS. 
"Words are divided into nine classes, called Parts of 
Speech. 

The Parts of Speech are the Noun, the Pronoun, the 
Article, the Adjective, the Verb, the Adverb, the 
Preposition, the Conjunction, and the Interjection. 

DEPLETIONS OP THE PAETS OP SPEECH. 
A Noun is a word used as the name of any thing; 
as, Washington, country, beauty, soul. 

2* 17 



18 DEFINITIONS OF THE PARTS OF SPEECH. 

A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, 
" Henry loves his books ; he studies his lessons well." 

An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning ; as, The star ; a house ; 
an insect. 

An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a noun 
or a pronoun ; as, A sweet apple ; many books ; " He is 
good." 

A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state ; 
as, " James runs." — " He does nothing." — " He is a good 
boy."— "He sleeps." 

An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an ad- 
jective, or another adverb; as, "He is very industrious, 
and advances rapidly in his studies." 

A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a pro- 
noun to show its relation to some preceding word; as, 
" The boy went with his father to the library." 

A Conjunction is a word used to connect the words, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed; as, "He is patient and happy, because he is a 
Christian." 

An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to ex- 
press some emotion of the mind ; as, Ha ! pshaw 1 alas ! 

Two or more of these parts of speech are always used in combi- 
nation to form a sentence ; one of these must be a (finite) verb. 

A Sentence, then, is two or more words so combined as to make 
complete sense. 

Sentences constitute distinct and separate portions of spoken or 
written language. 

Larger portions of written language composed of two or more 
sentences are called paragraphs, chapters, etc. One sentence, how- 
ever, may sometimes constitute a paragraph. 



CLASSES OF NOUNS — DIVISIONS OF COMMON NOUNS. 19 

i 

NOUNS. 



A Noun is a word used as- the name of any thing; 
as, James, Anna, boy, girl, river, truth. 

Words used as the names of letters, words, figures, signs, etc., are 
nouns ; as, "E is a vowel." — " The t is not crossed." — " -f- indicates 
addition." — " Good is an adjective." 

CLASSES OP NOUNS. 
Nouns are divided into two general classes; Proper 
and Common. 

A Proper Noun is a word used as the name of a particu- 
lar object or collection of objects, to distinguish it from 
others of the same class ; as ; John, Troy, Ohio, the Alps. 

A Common Noun is a word used as the name of any 
object or collection of objects of the same class; as, man, 
city, river, mountains. 

A noun is called Complex, when it is formed of two or more words 
not united, used together as a name ; as, Dead Sea, Chief Justice 
Marshall, Duke of Wellington. 

A noun is called Compound, when it is formed of two or more words 
united, used as a name ; as, statesman, landlord, man-of-war. 

Exercise. — Tell to which class each of the following nouns belongs, 
and give the reason : — William Shakspeare, islands, word, North Ame- , 
rica, July, season, year, Prince " Albert, Sir John Franklin, man- 
eater, army, Potomac, balloon, soldier, adverb, President Monroe, 
animal, Jew, pathway, the Bahamas, the Jews, foeman. 

CLASSES OF COMMON NOUNS. 

Common nouns are sometimes divided into four classes ; Collective, 
Verbal, Abstract, and Diminutive. 



20 PEOPERTIES OF NOUNS — NUMBER. 

A Collective Noun is a word used as the name of a collection of 
beings or of things, regarded as a unit ; as, family, herd, class. 

A Verbal Noun is a form of the verb which is used as the name of 
an action or of a state of being. It always ends with ing ; as, read- 
ing, writing, sleeping. 

A Verbal noun is frequently called a Participial noun. 

An Abstract Noun is a word used as the name of a quality be- 
longing to an object; as, redness, heat, wisdom. This quality is 
always considered apart from the object which possesses it. 

A Diminutive Noun is a word used as the name of an object which 
is smaller than its primitive; as, flower, floweret ; hill, hillock. 

Exercise. — Tell to which class of common nouns each of the following 
belongs, and give the reason : — Teaching, circlet, greatness, flock, leaflet, 
group, happiness, manikin, school, swimming, globule, swarm, 
duckling, purity, water, squadron, trutb, ignorance, lying, rivulet, 
streamlet, congress, meeting, coronet, honesty, nation, honor. 



PEOPEETIES 01 NOUNS. 

Property, in Grammar, means a peculiar quality belong- 
ing to any part of speech. 

Nouns have four properties; Number, Person, Gender, 
and Case. 

KUMBEK. 

Number is that property of a noun which denotes whether 
one or more than one object or collection of objects are 
meant. 

Nouns have two numbers ; the Singular and the Plural. 

The Singular Number denotes one object, or a collection 
of objects considered as a unit; as, desk, bench, nation, 
flock. 

The Plural Number denotes more than one object or col- 
lection of objects; as, desks, benches, nations, flocks. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 21 



POEMATIOff OP THE PLURAL. 

Nouns generally become plural by the suffixing of s 
to the singular; as ; sing, home, plur. homes; hey, keys; 
rose, roses; clock, clocks; cameo, cameos. 

This rule always applies to nouns ending with o, u, or y, imme- 
diately preceded by a vowel; as, bay, bays; trio, trios ; purlieu, 
purlieus. 

Nouns ending with ch (not sounded as k), s, sh, x, or z, become 
plural by the suffixing of es to the singular; as, bunch, bunches ; gas, 
gases; sash, sashes; fox, foxes ; waltz, waltzes. 

Nouns ending with y immediately preceded by a consonant, be- 
come plural by the change of y into i and the suffixing of es; as, 
study, studies; army, armies. 

Some nouns ending with single f or fe, become plural by the 
change of f into v and the suffixing of es ; as, life, lives ; thief, 
thieves.. 

These nouns are beef, calf, elf, half, leaf, loaf self, sheaf shelf, 
thief wolf knife, life, wife. 

Other nouns ending with single f or fe, become plural by the 
general rule ; but wharf has two forms of the plural, wharfs and 
wharves. 

Nouns ending with^", become plural by the general rule ; as, muff, 
muffs ; but staff, meaning a cane, has staves for the plural ; its com 
pounds, however, become plural by the suffixing of s only ; as, flag- 
staffs, distaffs. 

Nouns ending with o preceded by a consonant, differ in the forma- 
tion of the plural. Some become plural by the suffixing of es ; 
others by the suffixing of s only: the former mode is preferable. 

The following become plural by the suffixing of es: barricado, 
bravado, buffalo, calico, cargo, desperado, echo, flamingo, hero, mango, 
manifesto, motto, mulatto, negro, potato, stiletto, tomato, tornado, 
virago, and a few others. 

The following commonly become plural by the suffixing of s only : 
armadillo, canto, cento, duodecimo, grotto, halo, junto, memento, octavo, 
piano, portico, quarto, rotundo, salvo, sirocco, solo, tyro, zero, and a 
few others. 

When proper nouns become plural they follow the analogy of 
common nouns; as, William, Williams ; Adams. Adamses ; Carolina, 
Carolinas ; Cato, Calos. 



22 FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The formation of the plural of proper nouns ending with y pre- 
ceded by a consonant, is not settled. Some writers suffix s to form 
the plural; others follow the rule for common nouns; as, Henrys or 
Henries; Marys or Maries : the latter mode is preferable. 

E x e e c I s e. — Spell the plural of each of the following nouns, and give 
the rule : — 

Model. — Lady. — The plural of lady is ladies; according to the rule, 
" Nouns ending with y preceded by a consonant, become plural by the change 
of y into i and the suffixing of es." 

Folio, crutch, class, piano, brush, sex, topaz, sentry, monarch, 
loaf, chief, strife, tipstaff, puff, calico, fife, roof, tomato, quiz, tax, 
studio, chimney, echo, essay, canto, factory, grief, distich, wife, shelf, 
surf, scratch, staff (a body of officers), colloquy, buoy, Virginia, Venus, 
Nero, Alleghany, Mary, Wolsey, Charles, Sicily. 

IRREGULAR FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 

The following nouns have irregular plurals : — 

Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. Sing. Plur. 

Man, men. Foot, feet. Goose, geese. 

Child, children. Tooth, teeth. Louse, lice. 

Woman, women. Ox, oxen. Mouse, mice. 

The following nouns have both regular and irregular 
plurals, but with different meanings : — 



Sing. 


Regular Plural. 


Irregular Plural. 


Brother, 


brothers {of a family), 


"brethren (of a society). 


Die, # 


dies (stamps for coining), 


dice (blocks for gaming). 


Genius, 


geniuses (men of genius), 


genii (spirits). 


Index, 


indexes (tables of reference), 


indices (exponents). 


Penny, 


pennies (coins), 


pence (amount of value). 


Pea, 


peas (seeds), 


pease (the species). 


Cow, 


cows (individual animals), 


kine (the hind). 


Sow, 


sows (individual animals), 


swine (the kind). 




PLURAL OF COMPOUND NOUNS. 



Compound nouns in which the first part describes the last, have 
the last word made plural; as, field-mouse, f eld-mice; fellow- 
servant, fellow-servants ; statesman, statesmen. 

The compound nouns in which the first part is described by the 



FORMATION OP THE PLURAL. 23 

last, have the first part made plural; as, commander-in-chief, com- 
mander s-in-chief; looker-on, lookers-on; aid-de-camp, aids-de-camp. 

Compounds which have all itieir parts of equal importance,, or 
which are taken from foreign languages, become plural like simple 
words; as, piano-forte, piano-fortes ; sine-qua-non, sine-qua-nons. 

Some compound nouns have both parts plural; as, man-child, 
men-children; woman-singer, women-singers. 

All nouns ending with the syllable man are not compounds of the 
word "man;" as, Turcoman, German, talisman, Ottoman, etc. These 
become plural by the suffixing of s. 

Exercise. — Form the plural of each of the following compound nouns, 
and apply the rule: — Coachful, landlady, major-general, ox-chain, 
maid-of- all-work, goose-feather, step-son, sister-in-law, hanger-on, 
attorney-general, do-little, tooth-brush, sales-woman, statesman, knight- 
errant, penny-a-liner, vade-mecum, alderman, boot-maker, club-foot, 
man-of-war, chimney-sweep, fac-totum, hair-dresser, errand-boy. 

THE PLURAL OF COMPLEX PROPER NOUNS. 

When a complex proper noun, with or without a title prefixed, is 
used in reference to a class of individuals, it becomes plural, and the 
sign of the plural is suffixed to the last word only ; as, " The Sir Isaac 
Newtons of every science." — "The Oliver Cromwells of history." 

When a title is prefixed to a proper noun used as the name of 
more than one individual, the title is made plural ; as, The Messrs. 
Smith ; the Misses Janvier ; the Doctors Rush. 

When a title is common to several different names, the title is 
made plural ; as, Messrs. Sower, Barnes and Potts ; Senators Clay 
and Webster. 

When a definite number of individuals of the same name and 
title is mentioned, the name only becomes plural ; as, The three 
Miss Brownings ; the two Doctor Parrishes ; the eighteen Kin g 
Louises of France. 

When the title is Mrs., the name is always plural; as, The Mrs. 
Joneses. 

When two titles common to several names and of equal importance 
are prefixed, both titles become plural ; as, The Lords Commissioners 
Russell and North. 

Exercise. — Give the proper form of the plural of the following com- 
plex proper nouns: — General Scott and Taylor; Lord North and Russell; 



24 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



Councilor Hunt and Brady; the Alexander Hamilton of the day; the 
Mrs. Thomas; the Miss Stewart. 

Give the proper form for the following incorrect plurals : — The ten Popes 
Leo; the two Kings Charles of England; the Mrs. Hall; the three 
Misses Brown; Miss Jane and Mary Brown; the Miss Jameses. 



THE PLURAL OF FOREIGN NOUNS. 

By foreign nouns are meant those adopted from foreign languages. 
Some foreign nouns, haying come into familiar use, have regular 
English plurals as well as their original plurals. 
The following are the most common: — 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Bandit, "bandits, banditti. 


Beau, 


jeaus, beaux. 


Cactus, 


cactuses, cacti. 


Cherub, 


eherubs, cherubim. 


Encomium, 


encomiums, encomia. 


Focus, 


focuses, foci. 


Fungus, 


funguses, fungi. 


Gymnasium, 


gymnasiums, gymnasia. 


Medium, 


mediums, media. 


Memorandum, 


memorandums, memoranda. 


Seraph, 


seraphs, seraphim. 


Stamen, 


stamens, stamina. 


Virtuoso, 


virtuosos, virtuosi. 


Most foreign words used as En 


glish nouns still retain their ori- 


ginal plurals; among these are the following: — 


Singular. Plural. 


Singular. Plural. 


Alumna, alumnae. 


Effluvium, effluvia. 


Alumnus, alumni. 


Ellipsis, ellipses. 


Amanuensis, amanuenses. 


Emphasis, emphases. 


Analysis, analyses. 


Erratum, errata. 


Antithesis, antitheses. 


Genus, genera. 


Arcanum, arcana. 


Hypothesis, hypotheses. 


Axis, axes. 


Larva, larvae. 


Basis, bases. 


Madam, mesdames. 


Crisis, crises. 


Magus, magi. 


Datum, data. 


Metamorphosis, metamorphoses. 


Desideratum, desiderata. 


Monsieur, messieurs. 


Diasresis, diaareses. 


Nebula, nebula?. 



FORMATION OF THE PLURAL. 



25 



Singular. 


Plural. 


Singular. 


Plural. 


Oasis, 


oases. 


Stratum, 


strata. 


Parenthesis, 


parentheses, i 


Terminus, 


termini. 


Phenomenon, 


phenomena. 


Thesis, 


theses. 


Radius, 


radii. 


Vertebra, 


vertebrae. 


Stimulus, 


stimuli. 







NOUNS NOT USED IN BOTH NUMBERS. 

Some nouns are used in the singular number only. Such are ab- 
stract nouns ; the names of metals, virtues, vices, arts, and sciences, 
and of things weighed or measured; as, goodness, gold, wisdom, 
truth, idleness, surgery, geometry, sugar', flour. 

Names of sciences ending with ics, as conies, optics, etc., though 
plural in idea and form, are regarded as singular only. 

When different kinds of things weighed or measured are men- 
tioned, the plural form may be used ; as, sugars, teas, wines. 

The nouns alms, molasses, news, are singular only. 

Some nouns are used in the plural number only. The most 
common are annals, archives, ashes, assets, billiards, bitters, cattle, 
clothes, drugs, goods, manners, measles, morals, nuptials, oats, spec- 
tacles, thanks, tidings, victuals, wages : also the names of things 
consisting of two parts ; as, compasses, pincers, pantaloons, tongs, 
tweezers, trowsers, scissors, scales. 



NOUNS HAVING THE SAME FORM IN BOTH NUMBERS. 



Some nouns have the same form in both numbers ; as, deer, fish, 
series, sheep, trout, vermin, etc. ; so also nouns denoting a number or 
collection ; as, hundred-weight, couple, dozen, gross, head, pair, score: 
these words may have a plural form ; as, " Dozens of gloves were sold." 

Also such words as amends, means, riches, cannon, sail, etc. 

These words are singular if preceded by a word denoting but one; 
plural if preceded by a word denoting a number more than one. 



When other parts of speech are used as nouns, they become plural 
like nouns with similar endings ; as, "The ins and outs of office." 

Letters and signs used as nouns become plural by the suffixing of 
the apostrophe (') and s; as, The a's and b's; the 6's and Ts. 

Exercise. — Name each noun in the following sentences, and the class 
to which it belongs ; tell its number, and give the reason : — A soft answer 



26 PEKSON — GEKDER. 

turneth away wrath. We, the people of the United States, resolve. George 
Washington commanded the Americans at the battle of Brandywine, Sept. 11, 
1777. It is the duty of children to obey their parents. A human soul with- 
out education is like marble in the quarry. Sir Henry Clinton was Comman- 
der-in-Chief of the British army in America, in 1778. The Falls of Niagara 
are in a river of the same name. The wherefores are very plain. 

I PERSON. 

Person is that property of a noun which distinguishes 
the speaker or writer, the person or thing addressed, and 
the person or thing mentioned. 

Nouns have three persons ; the First, the Second, and 
the Third. 

The First Person distinguishes the speaker or writer; 
as, " I, James, will go." 

The Second Person distinguishes the person or thing 
addressed ; as, "James, will you go ?" 

The Third Person distinguishes the person or thing men- 
tioned; as, "James will go/" — "Leaves fall." 

Nouns are rarely used in the first person: in the majority of 
sentences nouns are in the third person. 

Exercise. — Tell to what class each noun in the following sentences be- 
longs; tell its number and person, and give the reasons : — I, Caesar, came, 
saw, and conquered. Napoleon Bonaparte was defeated at the battle of 
Waterloo, June 15, 1815. "Charge, Chester, charge! On, Stanley, on !" 
were the last words of Marmion. These are thy works, Parent of Good. A 
good man is a prince of the Almighty's creation. Thou, a man in full vigor 
of mind, shouldst be able to understand the meaning of the expression. 
Arise, countrymen, and let "Liberty" be your watchword. There is one 
thing that happeneth to the wise man and to the fool. 

GENDER. 

Gender is that property of nouns which distinguishes 
them in regard to sex. 



GENDEE. 



27 



Nouns have three genders ; the Masculine, the Feminine, 
and the Neuter. t 

The Masculine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 
male sex ; as, father, king, stag. 

The Feminine Gender is that which denotes beings of the 
female sex ; as, mother, queen, hind. 

The Neuter Gender is that which denotes objects that 
are without sex ; as, table, booh, mountain, wisdom. 

In nature, there are only two sexes belonging to persons and 
animals; the male and the female: in grammar, the names of males 
are said to be of the masculine gender, the names of females, to be 
of the feminine gender, and the names of things without life, to be 
of the neuter gender. 

Some nouns, such as parent, child, friend, servant, denote beings 
that may be either male or female : their gender is determined by 
the sense in which they are used ; if females are not especially re- 
ferred to, these nouns are regarded as masculine. 

METHODS OF DISTINGUISHING SEX. 

The sexes are distinguished in three ways ; 

1. By the use of different terminations; as, heir, heiress. 

2. By the use of different words; as, boy, girl. 

3. By forming compound words; as, man-servant, maid- 
servant. 

1. By the Use of Different Terminations, 

According to this method, feminine nouns are regularly formed 
from masculine nouns, by the suffixing of the terminations ess, ine, 
ix, and others, with or without addition, omission, or change ot 
liters in the masculine. 



Masculine, 


Feminine. 


Masculine. 


Feminine, 


Abbot, 


abbess. 


Author, 


authoress. 


Actor, 


actress. 


Baron, 


baroness. 


Administrator, 


administratrix. 


Benefactor, 


benefactress. 


Ambassador, 


ambassadress. 


Caterer, 


cateress. 


Arbiter, 


arbitress. 


Conductor, 


conductress. 


Auditor, 


auditres& 


Count, 


countess. 



28 



GENDEE. 



Masculine. 
Czar, 
Dauphin, 
Deacon, 
Director, 

Doctor, 

Idolator, 

Instructor, 

Jew, 

Landgrave, 

Lion, 

Marquis, 

Mayor, 

Monitor, 

Mister (Mr.) ; 

Negro, 

Patron, 

Peer, 

Poet, 

Priest, 

Prince, 

Prior, 

Prophet, 

Don, 

Duke, 

Editor, 

Elector, 



Feminine. 
czarina, 
dauphiness. 
deaconess, 
directress, or 

directrix, 
doctress. 
idolatress, 
instructress. 
Jewess, 
landgravine, 
lioness, 
marchioness, 
mayoress, 
monitress. 
Mistress (Mrs.), 
negress. 
patroness, 
peeress, 
poetess, 
priestess, 
princess, 
prioress, 
prophetess, 
donna, 
duchess, 
editress, 
electress. 



Masculine. 
Emperor, 
Enchanter, 
Executor, 

Founder, 

God, 

Giant, 

Governor, 

Heir, 

Hero, 

Host, 

Hunter, 

Protector, 

Shepherd, 

Songster, 

Sorcerer, 

Sultan, 

Tailor, 

Testator, 

Tiger, 

Traitor, 

Tutor, 

Tyrant, 

Viscount, 

Votary, 

Widower, 



Ftminiie. 
empress, 
enchantress, 
executrix, or 
executress. 
foundress, 
goddess, 
giantess, 
governess, 
heiress, 
heroine, 
hostess. 
huntress, 
protectress, 
shepherdess, 
songstress, 
sorceress, 
sultaness, or 

sultana, 
tailoress. 
testatrix, 
tigress, 
traitress, 
tutoress, 
tyranness. 
viscountess, 
votaress, 
widow. 



2. By the Use of Different Wards. 



Masculine. 

Bachelor, 

Beau, 

Soy, 

Brother, 

Buck, 

Bull, 

Cock, 

Drake, 

Earl, 

Father, 

Friar, monk, 



Feminine. 

maid. 

belle. 

girl. 

sister. 

doe. 

cow. 

hen. 

duck. 

countess. 

mother. 

nun. 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Gander, 


goose. 


Hart, 


roe. 


Horse, 


mare. 


Husband, 


wife. 


King, 


queen. 


Lad, 


lass. 


Lord, 


lady. 


Male, 


female. 


Master, 


Miss, mistress, 


Milter, 


spawner. 


Nephew, 


niece. 



GENDEE. 



29 



Masculine. 


Feminine. 


Masculine- 


Feminine. 


Papa, 


mamma. 


Soil, 


daughter. 


Ram, 


ewe. 


Stag, 


hind. 


Sir, 


madam. 


Uncle, 


aunt. 


Sire, 


dam. 


Wizard, 


witch. 



3. By Forming Compound Words. 



Masculine. 
Bridegroom, 
Cock-sparrow, 
Gentleman, 
Grandfather, 
He-goat, 



Feminine. 

bride. 

hen-sparrow. 

gentlewoman. 

grandmother. 

she-goat. 



Masculine. 
Landlord, 
Man-servant, 
Peacock, 
Step-father, 
Schoolmaster, 

EEMAEKS. 



Feminine. 

landlady. 

maid-servant. 

peahen. 

step-mother. 

schoolmistress. 



Many masculine nouns have no corresponding feminine ; as, butcher, 
brewer ; some feminine nouns have no corresponding masculine ; as, 
spinster, laundress. 

Gender is attributed to objects without sex when they are ad- 
dressed or mentioned as persons; as, " The ship glides smoothly on 
her [fern.) way." — "The sun shines in his (masc.) glory." These 
objects are said to be personified. 

Objects that suggest an idea of firmness, power, vastness, sub- 
limity, etc., are personified as males; and objects that suggest an 
idea of gentleness, beauty, timidity, etc., and cities, countries, and 
ships, are personified as females. 

Young children and animals are often referred to as if without 
sex ; as, " The deer was killed as it (neut.) browsed on the hill-side." 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun are 
considered collectively, the noun is said to be of the neuter gender ; 
as, " The class is large ; it (neut.) must be divided/' 

If the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun are 
considered separately, the noun is said to be of the same gender as 
the individuals that form the collection; as, "The class said that 
they (masc. or fern.) wished to speak to each other." 



Bxeecis e. — Mention the corresponding masculine or feminine of the fol- 
lowing nouns : — Stepson, lass, sultan, hunter, grandson, sister-in-law, 
widow, lord, miss, earl, witch, emperor, marquis, schoolmaster, executrix, 
duchess, editor, man-servant, testator, hero, nephew, lady, ewe, songster, 
god, sorcerer, hero, donna, czarina, hind. 

3* 



30 CASE. 



CASE. 



Case is that property of nouns which distinguishes their 
relations to other words. 

Nouns have three cases ; the Nominative, the Possessive, 
and the Objective. 

The Nominative Case is that which usually denotes the 
subject of a verb ; as, " The boy reads." 

The subject of a verb is that of which something is either said or 
asserted. 

The Possessive Case is that which usually denotes pos- 
session or origin ; as, The boy's book ; Milton's poems. 

The Objective Case is that which usually denotes the object 
of a verb, or of a preposition ; as, " The boy struck his 
sister." — " The apple is sweet to the taste" 

The object of a verb is that upon which the action asserted by 
the verb is exerted. The object of a preposition is the object of the 
relation shown by the preposition. 

FORMS OF THE CASES. 

The nominative and the objective case are alike in form. 
They are distinguished from each other by their relations 
to other words. 

The possessive case may always be known by its form. 

The possessive case in the singular number is usually 
formed by suffixing the apostrophe and s ('s) to the nomi- 
native singular ; as, nom. day, poss. day's. 

An apostrophe only is sometimes used to distinguish the possess- 
ive case, when the nominative singular ends with the sound of s and 
the next word begins- with the same sound ; as, For conscience' sake ; 
Jones' store. It is preferable to use both an apostrophe and 5 in all 
such instances. 

The possessive case in the plural number is formed by 



DECLENSION OF NOUNS. 



31 



suffixing the apostrophe only to the nominative plural 
when the nominative plural ends with s, and by suffixing 
both the apostrophe and s when the nominative plural does 
not end with s; as ; nom. days ; poss. days'; nom. men, 



poss. mens. 



The possessive case in the singular number of compound words 
having their parts connected by the hyphen (-), is formed by suffix- 
ing the 's to the end of the last word ; as, The man-of-war's crew ; 
the court-martiaV s sentence. 

In the possessive case of nouns having the same form in both 
numbers, the apostrophe precedes the s in the singular, and follows 
it in the plural ; as, " The deer's horn was broken." — " A load of deers' 
horns was offered for sale." 

The apostrophe and s are not always used as the sign of the pos- 
sessive case. They are sometimes used to form the plural of let- 
ters, characters, etc., used as nouns ; as, " His t's were not crossed." 
They are also used to form the singular of some verbs; as, "He 
pro's and con's, and considers the question carefully." 

DECLENSION OP NOUNS. 
The Inflection of nouns is called Declension. 

The Declension of nouns is the regular arrangement of 
their numbers and cases. 

EXAMPLES OF DECLENSION. 









Singular. 






Nom. 


Friend, 


Ox, 


Sky, Church, 


James, 


Box, 


Poss. 


friend's, 


ox's, 


sky's, church's, 


James's, 


box's, 


Obj. 


friend ; 


ox; 


sky ; church ; 


James ; 


box; 



Plural. 

Nom. friends, oxen, skies, churches, Jameses, boxes, 

Poss. friends', oxen's, skies', churches', Jameses', boxes', 

Obj. friends. oxen. skies. churches. Jameses, boxes. 

Exercise I. — Decline the following nouns: — Torch, fox, colony, 

money, glass, foot, wife, lash, cargo, trio, Jone3, page, study, 

princess, brother-in-law, thief, spoonful, dwarf, mouse, potato. 



32 PARSING. 

Exercise II. — Form the possessive singular and plural of the fol- 
lowing nouns : — Chimney, waltz, country, flag-staff, hrush, musk-ox, 
salesman, cupful, German, son-in-law, George Washington, court- 
martial, Robert Morris, Mussulman, commander-in-chief, half, sheep. 

SUBJECT AND OBJECT. 

The subject of a verb may be known by asking the question 
formed by placing who or what before the verb; the answer to the 
question is the subject; as, "John studies his lesson." Who studies? 
The answer is, John. Here John is the subj ect of the verb studies, 
and therefore is in the nominative case. 

The object of a verb, or of a preposition, may be known by 
asking the question formed by placing whom or what after the verb 
or the preposition; the answer to the question will be the object; as, 
"Henry goes to school." To what? School. "He learns gram- 
mar." Learns what? Grammar. Here school is the object of the 
relation shown by the preposition to, and grammar is the object 
of the action asserted or expressed by the verb learns; they are 
therefore in the objective case. 

Exercise. — Name the nouns in the nominative, and those in the 
objective case in the following sentences, and give the reasons : — The 
Americans defeated the British at the battle of New Orleans. The stars 
twinkle brightly in the sky. In Prussia, children are compelled to attend 
school. "Washington died on the 14th day of December, in the year 1799. 
Many a flower wastes its fragrance on the desert air. By industry only 
can we acquire a good education. Suspicion haunts the guilty mind. The 
study of geometry develops the intellect. 

PAKSItfG. 

To Parse means to tell to what parts of speech words belong, to 
name their properties and relations, and to give the rules which 
apply to them. 

As the rules are given in Syntax only, they may be omitted at 
present in parsing. 

In parsing, it is well to name (1) the w^rd to be parsed ; (2) the 
word or words with which it is grammatically connected; and (3) its 
properties, relations, etc. 

Exercise. — Parse the nouns in the following sentence: — "The boya 
found a bird's nest in the grove." 



PAUSING. 33 

Model s. — Boys. — Boys found. — "Boys" is a common noun, "A Noun is a 
word, etc." ; — a common noun, because it is used as the name of any collection 
of objects of the same class; — in me plural number, because it denotes more 
than one; — in the third person, because it distinguishes the persons mentioned ; 
— of the masculine gender, because it denotes beings of the male sex; — in 
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb {found). 

Bird's. — Bird's nest. — " Bird's" is a common noun, "A Noun is a word, etc."; 
— a common noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same 
class; — in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third 
person, because it distinguishes the being mentioned; — of the masculine or 
the feminine gender, because it denotes a being of the male or the female 
sex; — in the possessive case, because it denotes possession. 

Nest. — Found nest. — " Nest" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc."; — a com- 
mon noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same class ; — 
in the singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third person, 
because it distinguishes the thing mentioned; — of the neuter gender, because 
it denotes an object without sex; — in the objective case, because it is the 
object of the action asserted or expressed by the verb (found.) 

Grove. — In grove. — " Grove" is a noun, "A Noun is a word, etc." ; — a common 
noun, because it is used as the name of any object of the same' class; — in the 
singular number, because it denotes one object; — in the third person, because 
it distinguishes the thing mentioned ; — of the neuter gender, because it denotes 
an object without sex; — in the objective case, because it is the object of the 
relation shown by the preposition (in). 

Parse the nouns in the following sentences : — Trade increases the wealth 
of a country. Constant occupation prevents temptation. A man's character 
may be known by the books which he reads. A good name should be 
prized above riches. Every person's duty should be performed faithfully. 

During the Revolution the Americans fought for independence. The 
eagle's nest is built among the crags of the mountains. By too great eager- 
ness in the pursuit of our desires we frequently grasp at the shadow, and 
lose the substance. A house without books resembles a room without 
windows. Water-lilies bloomed along the borders of the lake. Time spares 
the chiseled beauty of stone and marble, but time makes sad havoc in 
plaster and stucco. General Braddock's death was caused, not by the In- 
dian's tomahawk, but by a bullet sent by one of his own soldier3. 

" The curfew tolls the knell of parting day, 
The lowing herd winds slowly o'er the lea, 
The ploughman homeward plods his weary way, 
And leaves the world to darkness and to me." 



34 PROPERTIES OF PRONOUNS — ETC. 



PRONOUNS. 



A Pronoun is a word used in place of a noun; as, 
"Thomas deserves praise, for he has recited his lessons 
well." 

In this sentence the word he is used in place of the noun Thomas, 
and his in place of the noun Thomas's; they are therefore called 
pronouns, — a word which means " for nouns." 

A pronoun is used to avoid an unpleasant repetition of a noun. 

The noun for which a pronoun is used is called the antecedent of 
the pronoun, because it generally precedes the pronoun, and the 
latter is said to represent its antecedent. 

PKOPERTIES OP PBOtfOUES. 

As pronouns represent nouns, they have number, person, 
gender, and case, as nouns have. They have also declension. 

The number, person, and gender of a pronoun are always the 
same as those of the noun which it represents, but the case may be 
different. 

CLASSES OF PKOtfOUffS. 

Pronouns are divided into three classes; Personal, 
Relative, and Interrogative. 

PERSONAL PEONOUffS, 

A Personal Pronoun is one which shows by its form the 
'person of the noun which it represents. 

Personal pronouns are Simple or Compound. 

The Simple Personal Pronouns are I, thou, he, she, and it, 
and their variations in the singular and in the plural. 



PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



35 



I is in the first person, and of the masculine or of the 
feminine gender. g 

Thou is in the second person, masculine or feminine 
gender. 

He is in the third person, masculine gender: she is in 
the third person, feminine gender : it is in the third person, 
neuter gender. 



DECLENSION 0E THE 


SIMPLE PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 








Singular. 






First Person. 


Second Person. 




Tliird Person. 




Masc. or Fern. 


Masc. or Fern. 


Masc. 


Fern. 


Neut. 


Nbm. 


I, 


Thou, 


He, 


She, 


It, 


Poss. 


my, or 


thy, or 


his, 


her, or 


its, 




mine, 


thine, 




hers, 




Obj. 


me; 


thee; 


him; 

Plural. 


her; 


it; 


Nom. 


we, 


you, or ye 


, they, 


they, 


they, 


Poss. 


our, or 


your, or 


their, or 


their, or 


their, or 




ours, 


yours, 


theirs, 


theirs, 


theirs, 


Obj. 


us. 


you. 


them. 
REMARKS. 


them. 


them. 



Personal pronouns in the first and in the second person do not have 
separate forms for the masculine gender and for the feminine, since 
the speaker and the person or the object addressed being present or 
well known, their gender is apparent. 

As persons Or things mentioned are not necessarily present, differ- 
ent forms are required to indicate their genders. Hence in the third 
person, he is used to represent the masculine, she to represent the 
feminine, and it to represent the neuter gender. 

Ye, formerly common to the nominative and the objective case in 
the plural number, is still retained in the nominative, though 
rarely used. 

In the possessive case, my, thy, her, our, your, their, are used when 
the noun denoting the thing possessed is mentioned, and mine, thine, 
hers, ours, yours, theirs, when it is omitted; as, "This work is mine." 
— " This is my work/' 

Mine and thine were formerly used before words beginning with a 



36 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 



vowel sound ; as, " All thine iniquities shall be forgiven." These 
forms are still used in poetry; as, "Time writes no wrinkle on thine 
azure brow/' 

The apostrophe (') should never be used in writing the following 
forms of pronouns in the possessive case: hers, its, ours, yours, 
theirs ; as, " It is yours," not your's. 

In both numbers the idea of possession is made emphatic by 
using the adjective own in connection with the possessive forms ; as, 
" You choose that course at your own risk." 

In the singular number, second person, the plural forms you, your 
and yours, are commonly used, though but one individual is ad- 
dressed ; as, "John, have you studied your lesson?" 

The form thou is used in prayers to God, in solemn language, and 
in poetry. 

It is often used without representing any particular antecedent ; 
as, "It is raining."— "i£ is never right to steal." " It" may then be 
said to be used indefinitely. 



COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Compound Personal Pronouns are formed by subjoining 
in the singular the noun self to the simple personal pro- 
nouns my, thy, him, her, and it ; and in the plural, the 
noun selves to our, you?', and them. 

The Compound Personal Pronouns are myself, thyself, 
himself, herself, and itself, and their plural forms ourselves, 
yourselves, and themselves. 



DECLENSION OE THE COMPOUND PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

Singular. 

First Person. Second Person. Third Person. 

Masc. or Fern. Masc. or Fern. Masculine. Feminine. Neuter. 

Norn. Myself, Thyself, Himself, Herself, Itself, 

Poss. 

himself; herself; itself; 

Plural. 

Nbm. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves, 

Poss. 

Obj. ourselves, yourselves, themselves, themselves, themselves. 



Obj. myself; thyself; 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 37 

The compound personal pronouns have no form for the possessive 
case, either in the singular or^n the plural number. 

The form yourself is ^commonly used when a single individual 
is addressed; as, "Give yourself no concern," for, "Give thyself no 
concern." 

Exercise I. — Telf the number, person, gender, and case, of the following 
pronouns; — His, themselves, I, its, your, mine, theirs, we, hers, us, 
you, myself, me, himself, my, herself, thine, them. 

Exercise II. — Parse the personal pronouns in the following sentence : 
—"As the boy seemed honest, I employed him." 

Models. — /. — I (the speaker) employed.—"!" is a personal pronoun, "A 
Personal Pronoun is one, etc."; — in the singular number, first person, of the 
masc. or the fern, gender, because the noun (the name of the speaker, not men- 
tioned) which it represents, is; — in the nominative case, because it is the sub- 
ject of the verb (employed). 

Him. — Employed him (boy). — "Him" is a personal pronoun, "A Personal 
Pronoun is one, etc." ; — in tne singular number, third person, of the masc. gen- 
der, because the noun (boy) which it represents, is ; — in the objective case, be- 
cause it is the object of the action expressed by the verb (employed). 

Parse the pronouns in the following sentences : — 

You have done the mischief, and I bear the blame. Love thy neighbor as 
thou lovest thyself. This glorious land is ours. The slanderer only in- 
jured himself in his attempt to injure his neighbor. The soil is noted for its 
fertility; it produces two crops yearly. Keep thy heart with all diligence, 
for out of it are the issues of life. Man makes his own language; but he 
makes it as the bee makes her cell, as the bird her nest. My mother began 
to instruct me at an early age ; as she had no other child, you may imagine 
how eager she was for my improvement. The boys failed to recite their les- 
sons, but the girls had their task well prepared. 

Exercise II I. — Parse also the nouns in the preceding sentences. 

EELATIVE PKONOUTS. 
A Relative Pronoun is one which relates directly to some 
preceding noun or pronoun ; as, " Thomas, who came late, 
was not admitted." — " lie who wins, may laugh." 

Kelative Pronouns have no separate forms to distinguish the dif 
ferent persons, as the personal pronouns have. The person is deter- 
mined by the antecedent, with which a relative always agrees in 
number, person, and gender. 



38 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 



The relative and its antecedent are not contained in the same part 
(or clause) of a sentence; and the part which contains the relative 
is connected by it with the antecedent. 

Relative pronouns are of two kinds; Simple and Com- 
pound. 

SIMPLE RELATIVES. 

The Simple Relative Pronouns are who, which, what, and 
that, 

DECLENSION OF THE SIMPLE RELATIVES. 







Sing 


mlar. 






Nom. 


Who, 


Which, 




What, 


That, 


Poss. 


whose* 


whose, 










Obj. 


whom; 


which ; 




what ; 


that; 






Plural. 






Norn. 


who, 


which, 




what, 


that, 


Poss. 


whose, 


whose, 










Obj. 


whom. 


which. 




what. 


that. 






REMARKS. 







Who is used in referring to persons. It is therefore masculine or 
feminine, according to the gender of its antecedent; as, "Napoleon, 
who (masc.) was Emperor of France/' — "Elizabeth, who [fern.) was 
Queen of England." 

Which is used in referring to inferior animals and to things with- 
out life. It is therefore masculine, feminine, or neuter, according to 
the gender of its antecedent; as, " The deer which (masc. or Jem.) 
was killed." — "The flower which (neut.) was plucked." 

What is used in referring to things only. It is therefore always 
of the neuter gender. 

What is equivalent to the thing which (or that which) in the singu- 
lar, and to the things which (or those which) in the plural : thus, 
" He obtained what he wanted," in the singular means, " He obtained 
the thing which he wanted;" and in the plural, "He obtained the 
things which he wanted." 

What, in meaning, includes the antecedent (thing) and the rela- 
tive (which) ; it has therefore a double use or connection, and is in 
two cases at the same time ; as, " What he said seemed true." In 
this sentence, what is in the nominative case, being the subject of the 



RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 39 

verb seemed; it is also in the objective case, being the object of the 
action expressed by the verb said. 

Sometimes what in each ot its constructions may be in the nomina- 
tive or in the objective case ; or, in one construction it may be in 
the nominative case, and in the other, in the objective. 

That is sometimes used in referring to persons, animals, or things. 
It is of the masculine, the feminine, or the neuter gender, according 
to the gender of its antecedent; as, " The same person that (masc. 
or fern.) I knew." — " The newest book that (neut.) he sold." 

That is. often used for who, whom, or which; as, "The first boy 
that [who) fails." — "The same man that {whom) we met." — "All 
the money that {which) he had was lost." (Page 155.) 

COMPOUND EBLATIVES. 

The Compound Relative Pronouns are formed by subjoin- 
ing the word ever or soever to the simple relatives who, 
which, and what 

The Compound Relatives are whoever, whosoever, which- 
ever, whichsoever, whatever, and whatsoever. 

Whoso was formerly used in the nominative ; it is now obsolete. 

DECLENSION OF THE COMPOUND RELATIVES. 

Singular and Plural. 

Nominative. Possessive. Objective. 

Whoever, whosever, whomever. 

Whosoever, whosesoever, whomsoever. 

Whichever, whichever. 

Whichsoever, whichsoever. 

Whatever, whatever. 

Whatsoever, whatsoever. 

REMARKS. 

The gender of the compound relatives is the same as that of the* 
simple relatives from which they are formed. 

Whoever and whosoever are used when reference is made to persons 
only. 

Whichever and whichsoever are used when reference is made to 
persons, animals, or things. 

Whatever and whatsoever are used when reference is made to 
things only. 



40 INTERROGATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A compound relative includes, in meaning, an antecedent and a 
simple relative: thus, whoever and whosoever mean any one who; 
whichever and whichsoever mean any one which; and whatever and 
whatsoever mean any thing which, or all things which. 

Compound relatives have a double construction, and (like what) 
are in two cases at the same time; as, " He told whoever heard him 
to obey without delay." Here whoever is in the objective case, being 
the object of the action expressed by the verb told, and is also in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the verb heard. 

Which and what, and their compounds, are called Pronominal 
Adjectives when they limit nouns. (P. 46.) 

INTEKKOGATIVE PKONOUNS. 

An Interrogative Pronoun is one which is used to ask a 
question ; as, " Who discovered America ?" — " Whose book 
did you find ?" — " Whom did you meet in Paris ?" 

The Interrogative Pronouns are who, which, and what. 

Whether, meaning which one of the two, was formerly used as an 
interrogative ; but it is now obsolete, as a pronoun. 

The interrogatives are declined like the simple relative pronouns. 

REMARKS. 

Who is used in asking about persons ; as, " Who banished 
Napoleon?" — " Who invented gunpowder?" 

Which and what are used in asking about persons, animals, or 
things; as, "Which of the men escaped?" — "Which of the horses 
won the race ?"— " What is he ? A poet." 

In asking about persons, who inquires for the name of the indi- 
vidual, which for the particular individual meant, and what for a 
description; as, "Who was that gentleman? Franklin." — "Which 
Franklin? Benjamin Franklin." — "What was he? A philosopher 
and statesman." 

An interrogative pronoun has no antecedent ; but refers to some 
word in the answer, called the subsequent, with which it agrees in 
number, person, and gender; as, "Who improved the telescope? 
Herschel." 

When used to answer direct or apparent questions, who, which, 
and what, do not relate to any antecedent or subsequent, but are used 
indefinitely, and may be called Indefinite Relative Pronouns, 

When which and what are placed before nouns to ask questions, 
they are called Interrogative Pronominal Adjectives. (P. 46.) 



MODELS FOR PARSING RELATIVES, ETC. 41 

Exercise I. — Models for Parsing Simple Relatives. 

— " Webster, who died in 1852, was an eminent statesman." 

Who. — ( Webster) who died. — ''who" is a relative pronoun, "A Relative 
Pronoun is one, etc.;" it is in the singular number, third person, and of the 
masculine gender, because its antecedent ( Webster) to which it relates, is; — in 
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (died). 
" "What he desired was given to him." 

What. — What was given — desired what. — "What" is a relative pronoun, "A 
Relative Pronoun is one, etc.," and, in meaning, includes both antecedent and 
relative (thing which) ; it is in the singular number, third person, and of the 
neuter gender, because the noun (not mentioned) to which it relates, is; 
— in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (was given); it 
is also in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed 
by the verb (desired). 

Compound Relatives. — "Men respect whoever tries to do his duty." 
Whoever. — Respect whoever — whoever tries. — "Whoever" is a compound 
relative pronoun, "A Compound Relative Pronoun is formed, etc.," and, in 
meaning, includes both antecedent and relative (he who or any one who) ; it 
is in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender, because 
the noun (not mentioned) to which it relates, is; — in the objective case, because 
it is the object of the action expressed by tbe verb (respect) ; it is also in 
the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (tries). 

Interrogative s. — "Who lost the book? Mary." 

Who. — (Mary) who lost. — "Who" is an interrogative pronoun, "An Inter- 
rogative Pronoun is one, etc. ;" it is in the singular number, third person, 
and of the feminine gender, to agree with its subsequent (Mary) ; — in the 
nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (lost). 

" Which escaped from the prison ?" 

Which. — Which escaped. — " Which" is an interrogative pronoun, "An Inter- 
rogative Pronoun is one, etc. ;" it agrees with some subsequent word (not 
mentioned) in some number, person, and gender which cannot be determined ; 
— in the nominative case, because it is the subject of the verb (escaped). 

Indefinite Relatives. — "He said that he did not know who 
founded Rome." 

Who. — Who founded. — " Who" is an indefinite relative pronoun, An In- 
definite Relative Pronoun is one which relates to no word antecedent or subse- 
quent; its number, person, and gender cannot be determined; — in the nomi- 
native case, because it is the subject of the verb (founded). 

4* 



42 ARTICLES. 

Parse all the relatives and the interrogative pronouns in the following 
sentences : — He who is truthful, is trusted. The field which was ploughed, 
now waves with ripening grain. The fire which the hunters lighted, burned 
the dry grass of the prairie. The sun disperses the clouds which obscured 
his rising. Who invented the steam-engine? James Watt. Pope says, 
"Whatever is, is right." What did Newton discover? Who first landed on 
the shores of North America? He forgets who burned Moscow. What did 
the man say? I did not hear what he said. Do with thy might whatso- 
ever thy duty demands. The first man that proposed the law, violated it. 
The wisdom which the Bible teaches, should be treasured in the heart. 

The happiness which a good conscience gives, is superior to all earthly 
enjoyment. He prayeth well, who loveth well. Whoever sows, shall reap. 
The injuries which we inflict, and the injuries which we suffer, are seldom 
weighed in the same balance. The man and horse that attempted to cross 
the swollen stream, were swept away and drowned. The sword of wit, like 
the scythe of time, cuts down friend and foe, and attacks every thing that 
lies in its way. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the nouns and the personal pronouns in the fore- 
going sentences. Write sentences containing different kinds of pronouns. 



AETICLES. 



An Article is the word the, or a or an, which is placed 
before a noun to limit its meaning ; as, The sun, the earth ; 
an eagle, a man. 

There are two articles ; The, and A or An. 

The is called the Definite Article, because it shows that 
some object or collection of objects is used in a definite 
sense ; as, The Revolution, the army, the cities. 

A is called the Indefinite Article, because it shows that 
an object is used in an indefinite sense; as, A battle, an 
army, a book. 

The definite article may refer to one object or group, or to more 
than one ; as, The tree, the trees ; the army, the armies. 



EXERCISES. 43 

The indefinite article can refer to one object, or to one group only; 
as, A man, an army. 

A and an are the same in mealing, but they differ v'n use. 

An is used before words which, when uttered, begin with a vowel 
sound; as, An acorn, an honor. An is also used before words which 
begin with h and are accented on the second syllable ; as, An his- 
torical essay. 

A is used before words which, when uttered, begin with a con- 
sonant sound ; as, A watch, a unit, a youth. 

Exercise I. — Tell before which of the following words a should be used, 
and before which an should be used, and give the reasons: — Apple, ear, entry, 
honest, horse, Indian, onion, union, European, watch, youth, unit, 
umbrella, orchard, ewer, iron, power, hour, history, yew, humane, 
eye, hero, heroic, hickory, hiatus, unfitness, usurper. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the articles in the following sentence : — " The child 
draws a coach." 

Model s. — The. — The child. — " The" is an article ; "An Article is a word, 
etc." ; — the definite article, because it shows that the noun child is used in a 
definite sense. 

A. — A coach. — "A" is an article; "An Article is a word, etc."; — the in- 
definite article, because it shows that the noun coach is used in an indefinite 
sense. 

Parse the articles in the following sentences : — 

An amusing story was read to the children. The sun shines during the 
day. The old peddler sat upon a stone by the wayside. The conduct of an 
honorable boy should be imitated. A rose plucked from the bush will soon 
droop. The spring clothes the earth with beauty. An honest boy will 
never hesitate to tell the truth, whatever consequences may happen to him. 
The humane act of the merchant gained him friends. A mist arose from the 
valley, and formed a cloud which hung over the top of the mountain. The 
present age has carried the useful arts to a high degree of perfection. A 
heavy fall of snow rendered the roads impassable for many days. 

Exercise II I. — Parse all the nouns and the pronouns in the preceding 
sentences. 

Exercise IV. — Write ten sentences, each containing the indefinite 
article a or an properly used. 



44 CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 



ADJECTIVES. 



An Adjective is a word used to describe or limit a 
noun or a pronoun ; as, Ripe apples ; three wise men ; 
unhappy me. 

CLASSES OF ADJECTIVES. 

Adjectives may be divided into the following classes : 
Proper, Common, Numeral, and Pronominal. 

A Proper Adjective is one derived from a proper noun; 
as, American, English, Newtonian. 

A Common Adjective is one which describes or limits a 
noun or a pronoun, but which is not derived from a 
proper noun ; as, honest, numerous, perfect. 

A Numeral Adjective is one which denotes a definite 
number; as, tioo, third, single. 

Numeral adjectives are of three kinds; Cardinal, Ordinal, and 
Multiplicative. 

The Cardinals denote how many ; as, nine, ninety. 

The Ordinals denote order; as, ninth, ninetieth. 

The Mnltiplicatives denote how many fold; as, single, double or 
twofold, triple or threefold. 

REMARKS. 

Adjectives, like nouns, may be compound in form; as, Sweet- 
scented clover ; home-made bread ; the Anglo-Saxon race. 

Most numeral adjectives may be regarded as complex in form; as, 
One hundred and nine dollars ; the two hundred and tenth page. 

A noun becomes an adjective when it is used to describe another 
noun ; as, Gold chain, Croton water, iron castings. 

Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, and, as such, have all the 
properties of nouns; as, " The good will be rewarded." — " The little 
which he had was lost ;" thousands of dollars ; our inferiors. 



PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 45 

E x E E c I s e. — Name the adjectives in the following sentences, tell to which 
class each belongs, and give the reasons : — 

The ripe grain was cut. A single mistake may cause a great loss. The 
fur of the Siberian squirrel is sold at exorbitant prices. Spain was once 
under the Moorish dominion. The solemn crow was perched upon the leafless 
branch of the aged elm. Now come the soft, smoky days of delightful 
weather, which will soon be followed by the sharp blasts of bleak December. 
High-sounding sentences should not be used in common conversation. Fifty 
four dollars were found in a secret drawer. Jefferson and Adams died on 
the fiftieth anniversary of the Declaration of American Independence. I 
never knew an early-rising, hard-working, prudent man, careful of his 
earnings, and strictly honest, who complained of bad luck. 

PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A Pronominal Adjective is one which either limits a 
noun mentioned, or represents a noun understood; as, "This 
task is difficult."—" This is a difficult task." 

In the first example, this " limits" the noun task, and is used as 
an adjective; in the second, this "represents" the noun task, and is 
used as a pronoun. 

A pronominal adjective may be parsed as an adjective when the 
noun is mentioned, and as a pronoun when the noun is omitted; 
or the noun may be supplied and the pronominal may always be 
parsed as an adjective simply. 

Pronominal adjectives are of three kinds ; Distributive, 
Demonstrative, and Indefinite. 

The Distributive Pronominal Adjectives are so called 
because they limit or represent the names of objects taken 
separately or singly. 

The principal distributives are each, every, either, and 
neither. 

They always refer to nouns in the singular number. 

The Demonstrative Pronominal Adjectives are so called 

because they limit or represent particular nouns. 

The principal demonstratives are this, that, these, and those. 

This and that refer to nouns in the singular number, these and 
those, to nouns in the plural number. 



46 PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES, ETC. 

The Indefinite Pronominal Adjectives are so called because 

they limit or represent nouns in an indefinite manner. 

The principal indefinites are all, another, any, none, one, 
other, some, such. 

REMARKS. 

Another is declined like a noun, in the singular number only. 
One and other are declined in both numbers. 

The following may also be classed among the pronominal adjec- 
tives ; both, enough, few, former, latter, little, less, least, much, many, 
more, most, same, several, and a few others. 

What, whatever, and whatsoever, are often used as relative pro- 
nouns and pronominal adjectives at the same time ; as, "Perform 
cheerfully what duties devolve upon you ;" that is, those duties which 
devolve, etc. When so used they are called Relative Pronominal 
Adjectives. 

Which and what, and their compounds, when placed before nouns 
to ask questions, are called Interrogative Pronominal Adjectives ; in 
other cases they are simply Pronominal Adjectives; as, " What 
preparations have been made?" — "The sun gives light by day; 
which fact is obvious." 

A pronominal adjective may sometimes represent a noun which is 
not mentioned; in such cases the gender can not be determined: the 
number and the person are determined by the form, or by the sense 
in which the pronominal adjective is used; as, "All seemed satisfied 
with the explanation." 

Exercise- I. — Models for Parsing Pronominal Adjec- 
tives. — "These ru^js include those." These. — These rules. — "These" is a 
demonstrative pronominal adjective, "A Demonstrative Pronominal Adjec- 
tive is one, etc."; — in this sentence it limits the noun rules. 

Those. — Those (rules). — "Those" is a demonstrative pronominal adjective, "A 
Demonstrative Pronominal Adjective is one, etc."; — in this sentence it repre- 
sents the noun rules; it is therefore in the plural number, third person, neuter 
gender; — in the objective case, because it is the object of the action expressed 
by the verb (include). 

Model for Relative Pronominal Adjectives. — "He 
used what books he could find." What. — What books — could jind what. — 
"What" is a relative pronominal adjective (those which). As a pronominal 
adjective it limits the noun books. As a relative pronoun it relates to the 
noun books, with which it agrees, in the plural number, third person, neuter 



COMPAKISCXN" OF ADJECTIVES. 47 

gender; — it is in the objective case, because it is the object of tbe action 
expressed by tbe verb (could find). 

Parse tbe pronominal adjectives in tbe following sentences : — 
Eacb hour of every day has its duties. This method is better than that is. 
The same statement was made by both. Neither criminal confessed his 
guilt. Much can be accomplished by a judicious arrangement of labor. 
All is not gold that glitters. The miser never thinks that he has enough, 
but is always striving for more. What books are needed for this class? 
All men must die, but all do not die the same death. Which candidate was 
elected ? Either of them will please me, although I prefer that one. 

He overcame what difficulties he encountered. I need not say what a field 
of usefulness is before you. Every effort was made to accomplish the purpose, 
but none succeeded. Two men offered themselves; both, on examination, 
were found to be competent, but, as one brought satisfactory recommenda- 
tions, while the other had none to offer, the former was accepted, and the 
latter at length perceived that, in some instances at least, integrity is essen- 
tial to success. 

Exercise II. — Parse all the nouns, pronouns, and articles in the pre- 
ceding sentences. 

COMPAKISON OF ADJECTIVES. 
The Inflection of adjectives is called Comparison. 
Many adjectives, chiefly the common adjectives, are 
capable of Comparison. 

The Comparison of an adjective is the changes of its 
form to denote different degrees of quality. 

Adjectives have three degrees of comparison; the Posi- 
tive, the Comparative, and the Superlative. 

The Positive Degree is that form of an adjective which 
is used to denote simply a. quality; as, wise, happy, small. 

The Comparative Degree is that form of an adjective 
which is used to denote a higher or a lower quality than 
the positive ; as, wiser, happier, smaller. 

The Superlative Degree is that form of an adjective which 
is used to denote the highest or the lowest quality of all 
compared; as, wisest, happiest, smallest. 



48 COMPARISON OF ADJECTIVES. 

FORMATION OF COMPARATIVES AND SUPERLATIVES. 
Adjectives of one syllable are generally compared by suffix- 
ing to the positive er to form the comparative, and est to form 
the superlative; as, pos. sweet, comp. sweeter, sup. sweetest. 

Adjectives of more than one syllable are generally com- 
pared by placing before the positive more or less to form 
the comparative, and most or least to form the superlative; 
as, pos. truthful, comp. more truthful, sup. most truthful; 
pos. pleasant, comp. less pleasant, sup. least pleasant. 

Dissyllables ending with y or e are generally compared 
by suffixing to the positive er to form the comparative, and 
est to form the superlative ; as, pos. happy, comp. happier, 
sup. happiest; pos. simple, comp. simpler, sup. sh 



IRREGULAR COMPARISON. 

The following adjectives are compared irregularly: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Good, better, best. 

Bad, evil, or ill, worse, worst. 

Much, or many, more, most. 

Little, less, least. 

The following are compared both regularly and irregu- 
larly : — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Near, nearer, nearest, next. 

Late, later, latter, latest, last. 

Old, older, elder, oldest, eldest. 

The following and a few others have the superlative 
ending with most: — 

Positive. Comparative. Superlative. 

Far, farther, farthest, farthermost. 

Fore, former, first, foremost. 

Hind, hinder, hindermost, hindmost. 

Low, lower, lowest, lowermost. 

Up, upper, uppermost. 



EXEECISES. 49 



REMARKS. 
i 

Such adjectives as anterior, inferior, previous, superior, ulterior, 
and a few others, suggest the idea of comparison, but do not admit 
its forms. 

When a comparison is implied, these adjectives are followed by to, 
and not by than, as comparatives usually are; as, "This event 
was anterior to the Revolution." 

Numeral adjectives, most proper and pronominal adjectives, those 
denoting material, position, or shape, and a few others, such as whole, 
universal, exact, supreme, etc., by reason of their use and meaning, 
are not compared. 

The comparative and the superlative forms of adjectives which 
strictly express qualities incapable of being increased or diminished, 
are frequently used by the best writers and speakers ; as, "We, the 
people of the United States, in order to form a more perfect union." 

Exercise I. — Compare such of the following adjectives as admit com- 
parison: — Noble, ill, soft, humble, pleasant, skilful, juicy, sour, 
generous, few, handsome, dry, many, certain, far, old, round, 
acceptable, intelligent, thoughtless, lovely, warm, timid, diligent, 
cheerful, brave, tough, fore, late, circular, ill-mannered, universal, 
supreme, good-natured, perfect, sad, evil-minded, sure, Roman, near, 
Christian, preferable. 

Exercise II. — Prefix adjectives to the following nouns, and tell to 
what class each adjective belongs : — Sun, moon, nation, army, lady^ 
prairie, rock, tree,, lake, Congress, Russia, dollar, eloquence, 
commander, industry, obedience, happiness, war, books, face, pride, 
home, life, tyrant, pleasure, mind, mountain, valley, ocean, bear, 
tiger, deer, rose, lily, Franklin, Napoleon. 

Exercise III. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentence: — "Few 
persons had nobler qualities than the two friends." 

Models. — Few. — Few persons. — "Few" is a pronominal adjective, "A Pro- 
nominal Adjective is, etc.";^-it can be compared (pos./eio, comp. fewer, sup. 
fewest) ; — in the positive degree ; it limits the noun persons. 

Nobler. — Nobler qualities. — " Nobler" is an adjective, "An Adjective is a 
word, etc."; — it can be compared (pos. noble, comp. nobler, sup. noblest); — in 
the comparative degree; it describes the noun qualities. 

Two. — Two friends. — "Two" is a numeral adjective, "A Numeral Adjective 

5 



50 VERBS. 

is one, etc."; cardinal, because it denotes how many; it cannot be com- 
pared; it limits the noun friends. 

Parse all the adjectives in tbe following sentences : — 

The swift hound pursues the timid hare. Tall trees cast long shadows. 
Nevada furnishes much silver. The wind roars through the leafless forest. 
Art is long, and time is fleeting. Seven men in ancient Greece were famous 
for their wisdom. This important principle has a threefold application. He 
is unhappy because he has been false. If he were less timid, he would be 
more successful. He paid ten thousand dollars for that farm. English 
literature was very flourishing during the latter half of the sixteenth and 
the first of the seventeenth century. 

Swedish iron is suitable for the manufacture of steel on account of its 
hardness. Had you such leisure to gaze upon these secrets of the deep? 
In what sense are all men born free and equal? Remote from the noise 
of the busy world, in a quiet and secluded nook, stood a vine-clad cottage ; 
a silver stream ran near it; trees in their natural wildness and beauty 
shaded it from the fierce rays of the noon-day sun ; the humble violet and 
the pale-faced lily wafted their delicious perfume on the air. By some 
strange chance the least worthy competitor was chosen. 

Exercise IV. — Parse the nouns, the pronouns, and the articles in the 
foregoing sentences^ Write sentences containing different kinds of adjectives. 



VERBS. 



A Verb is a word used to assert action, being, or state. 

No assemblage of words can make complete sense without the use 
of a verb, mentioned or understood; nor can any sentence be formed 
without a subject, which is either a noun, a pronoun, or a number 
of words taken as a noun, about which something is asserted. 

Exercise. — Name the verbs and their subjects in the following sen- 
tences, and give the reasons : — 

Model. — "James studies very diligently." — Studies. — James studies.— 
" Studies" is a verb, " A Verb is a word, etc." ; it asserts action. Its sub- 
ject is James, because it is he of whom the action expressed by the verb is 
asserted. 



CLASSES OF VERBS ACCORDING TO MEANING. 51 

The fanner ploughs. Kings rule. John plays. Mary sews neatly. The 
full moon shines. The hird escapqgl. Flowers bloom in the garden. A deep 
snow fell. The child sleeps soundly. The sun ripens the grain. How swiftly 
the sparrow flies. The sun rises over the hill tops. Who heard the noise ? 
The miser's gold sunk to the bottom. What a terrible accident happened on 
the river! Death is certain. Terror struck him speechless. 

CLASSES OF VEEBS ACCORDING TO MEANLTO. 
Verbs are divided into two classes according to their use 
or meaning; Transitive and Intransitive. 

A Transitive Verb is one which has an object, or which 
requires an object to complete the sense; as, "He saw the 
eagle" — " The earth hath bubbles, as the water has (bubbles)" 

An Intransitive Verb is one which has no object, or which 
does not require an object to complete the sense; as, 
"Birds fly." — "Truth is mighty." — "He opened his eyes 
and saw" — " Experience teaches better than books." 

REMAKES. 

A transitive verb asserts action only, and such action as is always 
exerted upon some person or thing called the object; as, " The sun 
warms the earth." — " The boy struck his friend" 

An intransitive verb asserts being or state, — or action not exerted 
upon any person or thing; as, "The sky is clear." — "The traveler 
sits by the roadside/' — " The sun shines." 

Some verbs, though alike in form, differ in class according to mean- 
ing; as, "James returned (trans.) the book." — "James returned 
(intrans.) to his home." 

A verb which is usually intransitive sometimes becomes transitive, 
especially when an object is added having a meaning similar to that 
of the verb ; as, " The miser lives a life of care." — " The boys played 
a game of ball." 

Intransitive verbs also become transitive when they have a causa- 
tive meaning; as, "The company ran an extra train of cars." — 
" The planters grow cotton and sugar." These expressions are inele- 
gant, but custom has authorized their use. 

Exercise. — Mention the verbs in the following sentences, and tell which 
are transitive, and which are intransitive; and give the reasons:— 



52 PROPEETIES OF VERBS — VOICE. 

Model. — "James studies his lessons, while John is idle." Studies.-— 
Studies lessons. — "Studies" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — transitive, 
because it has an object (lessons). 

Is. — "Is" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — intransitive, because it has 
no object. 

Labor sweetens pleasure. Bonaparte died in exile. The lightning glanced 
from the clouds and struck the oak. While he spoke all listened. The wind 
blew furiously and shook the house. Milton, the poet, became blind. The 
good man departs and leaves a blessing behind. The artist who painted the 
picture deserves praise. Louis Napoleon has written a " Life of Caesar." 
The rivulet flows with a noiseless current. A man dies, but a nation lives. 
When people are determined to quarrel, a straw will furnish the occasion. 
We mounted our horses and rode^ homeward. 

PEOPEETIES OF YEEBS. 
The properties of verbs are Voice, Mode, Tense, Num- 
ber, and Person. 

VOICE. 

Voice is that property of a verb which shows whether 
the subject or nominative does or receives the action ex- 
pressed by the verb. 

Voice belongs to transitive verbs only. 

There are two voices ; the Active and the Passive. 

The Active Voice is that form of a transitive verb which 
shows that the subject does the action expressed by the 
verb ; as, " Henry carries the basket." 

In this sentence the subject Henry does the action ex- 
pressed by the verb carries. 

The Passive Voice is that form of a transitive verb which 
shows that the subject receives the action expressed by the 
verb; as, "The basket is carried by Henry." 

In this sentence the subject basket does not act, but re- 
ceives the action expressed by the verb is carried. 

REMAKES. 

When the active voice of a verb is changed to the passive voice, 
the object of the action expressed by the verb in the active voice 



PROPERTIES OP VERBS — MODE. 53 

always becomes the subject of the verb in the passive voice, and the 
subject of the verb in the actfve voice becomes, in the passive, the 
object of a preposition; that is, the subject and the object exchange 
cases, the action remaining the same. 

Although intransitive verbs have no voice, yet they have the form 
of the active voice. 

Sometimes an intransitive verb, when followed by a preposition, 
may take the form. of the passive voice ; as, " The event was looked 
for." — "Virtue is sneered at very often." Was looked for, and is 
sneered at, are parsed as complex verbs in the passive voice. 

A few intransitive verbs have sometimes the form of the passive 
voice, but the sense is not changed, because the subject remains in 
the nominative case; as, "Summer is gone," for, "Summer has 
gone" — "He is come," for "He has come." 

Although such expressions are sometimes elegantly used, it is 
generally better to employ the form of the active voice. 

Exercise. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell which are 
transitive and which intransitive, and the voice of each, and give the reasons :— 

Models. — "He was esteemed because he performed all his duties." 
Was esteemed. — " Was esteemed" is a verb, "A Verb is a word which, etc." ;— 
transitive, because the action which it asserts is exerted upon some object ; 
— in the passive voice, because the subject receives the action expressed by 
the verb. 

Performed. — Performed duties. — " Performed" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc."; — transitive, because it has an object (duties); — in the active voice, be- 
cause it shows that the subject does the action expressed by the verb. 

He is loved by all. Temperance preserves the body in health. The battle 
was fought on the banks of the river. Attend to your business yourself, if 
you wish it to prosper. The French elected Napoleon. We should improve 
our time by study. His hours were spent in idleness. The scholars write 
correctly. Orthography is taught in spelling-books. The money was 
returned by the borrower. The king returned to his capital. God, who 
made the world, governs it. His wisdom was acquired by bitter experience. 
Lifeless, but beautiful, he lay. Not a berry was found, not a kernel remained. 

MODE. 
Mode is that property of a verb which distinguishes in 
what manner the action, the being, or the state, asserted by 
the verb, is expressed. 

5* 



54 PROPERTIES OF VEEBS — MODE. 

Verbs have five modes ; the Indicative, the Potential, 
the Subjunctive, the Imperative, and the Infinitive. 

The Indicative Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express a positive assertion, or to ask a question; 
as, "Washington commanded the American army." — "Who 
invented the art of printing?" 

A verb in the indicative mode may also express uncertainty or 
contingency ; as, " If he has loved." 

The Potential Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express possibility, liberty, power, necessity, or 
desire; as, " I can go." — " He must study" 

The potential mode may also be used to ask questions, and to ex- 
press uncertainty or contingency; as, "May I go ?" — "If I may go, 
I certainly will." 

The Subjunctive Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express the action, the being, or the state, asserted 
by the verb, as desirable, uncertain, or as subject to some 
condition; as, " If he come, he will be received." — "O that 
I were happy I" — " If this be true, all may end well." 

A verb in the subjunctive mode usually depends upon a verb in 
some other mode, and is connected with it by one of the conjunc- 
tions, if, although, unless, except, whether, though, lest, etc. 

The Imperative Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express entreaty, per mission, command, or exhortation ; 
as, " Attend to my directions." — " Gh^ant my request." — 
" Come when you wish." 

The subject of a verb in the imperative mode, which is either thou 
or you, is usually omitted, but it must be mentioned in parsing. 

The Infinitive Mode is that form of the verb which is 
used to express an action, a being, or a state, which is not 
limited to a subject; as, " To love." — "He tries to study." 

REMARKS. 

A verb is said to be finite when the action, the being, or the state, 
which it asserts, is limited to a subject or nominative. 



PROPERTIES OF VERBS — TENSE. 55 

Verbs in the indicative, the potential, the subjunctive, and the im- 
perative mode, are finite verb* 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word which it 
limits, or completes in meaning, — usually a verb, an adjective, or a 
noun ; as, " I wish to go." — " It is too late to go." — " It is time to go." 

The infinitive mode is often equivalent in its use and meaning to 
a verbal or participial noun; that is, it may be used as a noun in the 
nominative or in the objective case; as, "To play is healthful." — 
" Children love to play." 

Exercise. — Name the verbs in the following sentences, tell to which 
class each belongs, and its voice and mode, and give the reasons : — 

Model. — "Example teaches better than precept." — Teaches. — "Teaches" 
is a verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — intransitive, it has no object; — it has no 
voice, because it is an intransitive verb; — in the indicative mode, because it is 
used to express a positive assertion. 

Oxen draw carts. A bird can fly. The rain causes the grass to grow. 
I will remain, but you may go. All that live must die. The faithful ser- 
vant should be rewarded. She could have returned whenever she wished. 
He must increase, but I must decrease. If a man strive honestly, he may 
expect to succeed. All this passed much more quickly than I can write it. 
To relieve the poor is a source of pleasure. Love thy neighbor as thyself. 
Whatever you do, do well. Though he fall, he will rise again. It is time 
to go. My son, forget not my law. Mohammed fled from Mecca. The 
fruits are gathered in autumn. The storm began to increase in violence. 
These deer are kept in a nobleman's park. 

TENSE. 

Tense is that property of the verb which distinguishes 
the time of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by 
the verb. 

There are six tenses ; the Present, the Past, the Future, 
the Present Perfect, the Past Perfect, and the Future 
Perfect. 

The present, the past, and the future tense represent divisions of 
time into present, past, and future. The other three tenses repre- 
sent time relatively present, past, or future, according to their use or 
connection with other verbs. 

The Present Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 



56 PROPERTIES OF VERBS— TENSE. 

presses present time ; as, " I learn." — " Thou art loved" — 
" He is writing a letter." 

The present tense denotes what now is, what now takes 
place, or what is now taking place. 

The present tense also denotes what is habitual, or what is always 
true; as, "He said that the earth is round." — "Vice produces 
misery." 

The present tense is often used in narrative to describe more 
vividly what took place in past time ; as, " Napoleon advances with 
his troops and breaks through their ranks/' 

The present tense sometimes refers to future time when preceded 
by a relative pronoun, or by when, after, before, as soon as, etc.; as, 
"He will treat all whom he receives, kindly." — " He will go when he 
becomes ready." 

The Past Tense is that form of the verb which expresses 
past time; as, "He was a good man." — "He fought a 
battle." — " He ivas dying when I entered." 

The past tense denotes what was, what took place, or 
what was taking place. 

The past tense expresses time which is fully past, however recent 
or remote that time may be ; as, "I saw William a moment since." — 
" I saio him yesterday. 7 ' — " I met him many years ago." 

The Futoe Tense is that form of the verb which ex- 
presses future time, merely ; as, " I shall learn." — " Spring 
will come." 

The future tense denotes what shall or will be, what shall 
or will take place, or what shall or will be taking place. 

The Present Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses past time connected with the present; as, "I have 
learned." — "Thou hast been loved." — "He has written a 
letter to-day." 

The present perfect tense denotes what has been, what 
has taken place, or what has been taking place, during a 
period of time of which the present moment is a part. 

The present perfect tense may refer to a past action whose conse- 



TENSE. 57 

quences are still going on, or whose effects are still felt ; or it may- 
be used in reference to an author whose writings still exist ; as, 
"Christianity has civilized many nations." — "Washington has left 
an example which all should delight to follow." — " Shakespeare has 
written better plays than any other English dramatist." 

The present perfect tense, like the present, sometimes refers to 
future time; as, "Let me know when he has arrived." 

The propriety of the use of either the present, or the present per- 
fect tense, to express future time is, in most instances, quite doubt- 
ful, although such use is common among good writers. It is better 
always to employ the forms of the future and of the future perfect 
tense to express the relations of future time. 

The Past Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses past time which is previous to some other past time; 
as, " He had gone, before the messenger arrived." 

The past perfect tense denotes what had been, what had 
taken place, or what had been taking place before some past 
event mentioned. 

The Future Perfect Tense is that form of the verb which 
expresses future time which is previous to some other future 
time; as, "I shall have finished the task before the close of 
next week." 

The future perfect tense denotes what shall or will have 
been, what shall or will have taken place, or what shall or 
will have been taking place, before some future event 
mentioned. 

TENSES OF THE DIFFERENT MODES. 

The indicative mode has all the tenses. 

The potential mode has four tenses ; the present, the past, the 
present perfect, and the past perfect. 

The subjunctive mode has two tenses; the present, and the past. 

The infinitive mode has two tenses ; the present, and the present 
perfect. 

The imperative mode has but one tense ; the present. 

The tenses in the indicative mode express time according to their 
definitions and qualifications as before given. 

The time denoted by verbs in the subjunctive, the potential, the 



58 NUMBER AND PERSON — PARTICIPLES. 

infinitive, and the imperative mode, is not definite ; nor is it always 
such as the names of the tenses imply ; — it is present, past, or future, 
according to their use or connection with other verbs or forms of verbs. 

EUMBEE AED PEESOff. 

Verbs have changes of form to correspond with the 
number and the person of their subjects. 

Verbs, therefore, are said to have two numbers, — the 
Singular and the Plural; and three persons, — the First, 
the Second, and the Third ; thus : — 

Singular. Plural. Singular. Plural. 

1st Pers. I am, We are, I learn, We learn, 

2d Pers. thou art, you are, thou learnest, you learn, 

3d Pers. he is; they are. he learns; they learn. 

A verb in the infinitive mode has no number or person, because it 
has no subject. 

UNIPERSONAL VERBS. 

Verbs which have but one person are called Unipersonal 
Verbs. 

Woidd, meaning wish, is always in the first person; as, " Would 
he were here/' means, " I wish he were here." 

Methinks (I think) and methought (I thought) are used, in the 
first person, as unipersonal verbs. 

Verbs in the imperative mode are always in the second person, but 
in parsing they need not be called unipersonal. 

Verbs which have the pronoun it [used indefinitely) for their 
subject, are unipersonal verbs in the third person ; as, "It behooves." 
— " It thunders." 

Meseems (it seems to me) and meseemed (it seemed to me) are uni- 
personal verbs in the third person. 

PAETICIPLES. 
A Participle is a form of the verb which has the nature, 
partly of the verb, and partly of the adjective; as, 
" Wealth acquired dishonestly affords no happiness." 

The participle has the nature of the verb, because it expresses 
(though it does not assert) action, being, or state, and also implies 



PARTICIPLES. 59 

time. It has the nature of the adjective, because, like an adjective, 
it describes or limits a noun or a pronoun. 

There are three participles ; the Imperfect, the Perfect, 
and the Preperfect. 

The participles are so named from the condition (as regards com- 
pletion) of the action, the being, or the state, implied by the participle 
at the time denoted by the principal verb with which it is connected. 

The Imperfect Participle is one which represents an ac- 
tion, a being, or a state, as continuing, or as unfinished; as, 
" The waves were heard breaking on the beach." 

The imperfect participle in the active voice ends with ing ; as, 
learning, seeing, reading. In this voice it is a single word. 

The imperfect participle in the passive voice has being for its 
sign ; as, being seen, being read. In this voice it is always complex 
in form. 

The Perfect Participle is one which represents an action, 
a being, or a state, as complete or finished; as, "He came, 
accompanied by his friends." — " The army retired, defeated 
on all sides." 

The perfect participle in each voice is a single word. 

The perfect participle is seldom used in the active voice except to 
form the present perfect, the past perfect, and the future perfect tense ; 
as, " I have taught." — " I had taught." — " I shall have taught." 

In the passive voice it is used in forming all the tenses of the 
various modes ; — it may also be used alone ; as, "I am loved;" to be 
loved; " Washington died, loved by all." 

The Preperfect Participle is one which represents an 
action, a being, or a state, as complete or finished before some 
other action, being, or state; as, "Having reached the 
summit, they sat down to rest." 

The preperfect participle is always complex in form, and in the 
active voice is made by placing having, and in the passive voice, 
by placing having been, before the perfect participle; as, having 
loved; having been taught. 

REMARKS. 

The imperfect and the preperfect participle are easily distinguished 
by their forms. 



60 PAETICIPLES. 

The perfect participle of regular, and of most irregular verbs, has 
the same form as the past tense ; hut the action, the being, or the 
state expressed by this participle is not limited to any subject, as 
that of a finite verb is. 

The time implied by the participle is present, past, or future, ac- 
cording to the tense of the principal verb with which it is used ; as, 
" He lives, respected {present) by all who know him." — " He lived, 
esteemed (past) by his friends." — " He will live, honored (future) 
by his fellow-men." 

When a participle is used merely to describe a noun or a pro- 
noun, it is called a Participial Adjective; as, " Cultivated fields sur- 
rounded the mansion." — "A running stream is a pleasant sight." 

When a participle receives a prefix not found in the verb from 
which it is formed, it becomes an adjective simply, and is to be parsed 
as such ; as, beloved, unloved, unhonored. 

When a participle ending with ing is used simply as the name of 
an action, a being, or a state, it is called a Participial Noun; as, 
" His reading is very indistinct." 

E x e e o i s E. — Name the participles in the following sentences, and tell to 
which class each belongs; also, the participles used as adjectives, and those 
used as nouns : — 

Still achieving, still pursuing, learn to labor and to wait. The laborer, 
exhausted by toil, sank into a deep sleep. The icicles hanging from the 
branches of the trees glistened in the sunlight. The French, having entered 
Moscow, considered their sufferings at an end. The complaining brooks make 
the meadows green. The street, filled with its ever-shifting train, has been 
compared to life. "'Tis some visitor," I muttered, "tapping at my chamber 
door." The sentence of death pronounced upon the prisoner was received 
without emotion. The confused throng swayed to and fro. The army, re- 
turning with victorious eagles, entered the city in triumph. 

Being driven by the gale, the vessel was dashed against the rocky shore. 
The Persians, having been defeated, returned to their own country. His 
mind had been ve" disciplined by reading and observation. The stream 
flows on its winding course through a richly cultivated valley. I see thee 
weeping, trembling, captive led. The defences of the city being battered 
down, the enemy entered. Eiches, justly obtained and rationally used, are 
a great blessing. The services having been concluded, preparations were 
made to deposit the coffin in the earth. How fast the flitting figures pass J 
Cheating is a sure attendant upon gambling. 



CLASSES OF VEEBS ACCORDING TO FORMATION. 61 

CLASSES OP VEEBS ACCORDING- TO POBMATIOIT. 

Verbs are divided, according to their formation, into 
two classes ; Regular and Irregular. 

A Regular Verb is one whose past tense and perfect par- 
ticiple are formed by suffixing ed to its present tense ; as, 
Pres., love; Past, loved; Perf. Part., loved. 

An IrregTllar Verb is one whose past tense or perfect par- 
ticiple, or both, are not formed by suffixing ed to its pre- 
sent tense; as, Pres. take; Past, took; Perf. Part, taken. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 

The present tense, the past tense, and the perfect participle, are 
called the Principal Parts of a verb. 

They are called the Principal Parts, because, besides being them- 
selves tenses or parts of the verb, they aid in the formation of all 
the other tenses or parts of the verb. 

The present form of a verb is used, in the active voice, in the pre- 
sent and in the future tense of the indicative ; in the present and in 
the past of the potential ; and in the present of the subjunctive, the 
present of the imperative, and the present of the infinitive. 

The past form of a verb is used, in the active voice, in the past 
tense of the indicative, and in the past of the subjunctive. 

The perj ect participle is used after "have" and " had" in the active 
voice, and is used in forming all the tenses of the different modes in 
the passive voice. 

PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREGULAR VERBS. 

In the following table the principal parts of primitive verbs 
chiefly are given, because, with very few exceptions, the past tense 
and the perfect participle of derivative and compound verbs are 
formed in the same manner as those of their primitives. 

Verbs are partially inflected when their three principal parts are 
reamed. 



Present. 

Abide, 


Past. 

abode, 




Perfect Part. 

abode. 


Am, 


was, 




been. 


Arise, 


arose, 




arisen. 


Awake, 


awoke, 
6 


awaked, 


awaked. 



62 PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Bear (to bring forth), 


bore, bare, 


born. 


Bear (to carry), 


bore, 


borne. 


Beat, 


beat, 


beat, beaten. 


Begin, 


began, 


begun. 


Bend, 


bended, bent, 


bended, bent. 


Bereave, 


bereaved, bereft, 


bereaved, bereft. 


Beseech, 


besought, 


besought. 


Bestride, 


bestrid, bestrode, 


bestrid, bestridden. 


Betide, 


betid, betided, 


betid. 


Bid, 


bid, bade, 


bid, bidden. 


Bind, 


bound, 


bound. 


Bite, 


bit, 


bitten, bit. 


Bleed, 


bled, 


bled. 


Blow, 


blew, 


blown. 


Break, 


broke, 


broken. 


Breed, 


bred, 


bred. 


Bring, 


brought, 


brought. 


Build, 


built, builded, 


built, builded. 


Burn, 


burned, burnt, 


burned, burnt. 


Burst, 


burst, 


burst. 


Buy, 


bought, 


bought. 


Cast, 


cast, 


cast. 


Catch, 


caught, catched, 


caught, catched. 


Chide, 


chid, 


chid, chidden. 


Choose, 


chose, 


chosen, chose. 


Cleave (to split), 


cleft, clove, 


cleft, cloven. 


Cling, 


clung, 


clung. 


Clothe, 


clothed, clad, 


clothed, clad. 


Come, 


came, 


come. 


Cost, 


cost, 


cost. 


Creep, 


crept, 


crept. 


Crow, 


crew, crowed, 


crowed. 


Cut, 


cut, 


cut. 


Dare (to venture), 


dared, durst, 


dared. 


Deal, 


dealed, dealt, 


dealed, dealt. 


Dig, 


dug, digged, 


dug, digged. 


Do, 


did, 


done. 


Draw, 


drew, 


drawn. 


Dream, 


dreamed, dreamt, 


dreamed, dreamt. 


Drink, 


drank, 


drunk. 


Drive, 


drove. 


driven. 



PRINCIPAL PARTS OF PRIMITIVE IRREG. VERBS. 63 



Present. 


Past. 




Perfect Part. 


Dwell, 


dwelled, 


, dwelt, 


dwelled, dwelt. 


Eat, 


e%ft, ate, 




eat, eaten. 


Fall, 


fell, 




fallen. 


Feed, 


fed, 




fed. 


Feel, 


felt, 




felt. 


Fight, 


fought, 




fought. 


Find, 


found, 




found. 


Flee, 


fled, 




fled. 


Fling, 


flung, 




flung. 


Fly, 


flew, 




flown. 


Forsake, 


forsook, 




forsaken. 


Freeze, 


froze, 




frozen. 


Get, 


got, 




got, gotten. 


Gild, 


gilded, gilt, 


gilded, gilt. 


Gird, 


girded, girt, 


girded, girt. 


Give, 


gave, 




given. 


Go, 


went, 




gone. 


Grave, 


graved, 




graven, graved. 


Grind, 


ground, 




ground. 


Grow, 


grew, 




grown. 


Hang, 


hanged, 


hung, 


hanged, hung. 


Have, 


had, 




had. 


Hear, 


heard, 




heard. 


Heave, 


heaved, 


hove, 


heaved. 


Hew, 


hewed, 




hewed, hewn. 


Hide, 


hid, 




hid, hidden. 


Hit, 


hit, 




hit. 


Hold, 


held, 




held. 


Hurt, 


hurt, 




hurt. 


Keep, 


kept, 




kept. 


Kneel, 


kneeled, 


knelt, 


kneeled, knelt. 


Knit, 


knit, knitted, 


knit, knitted. 


Know, 


knew, 




known. 


Lade, 


laded, 




laded, laden. 


Lay, 


laid, 




laid. 


Lead, 


led, 




led. 


Leave, 


left, 




left. 


Lend, 


lent, 




lent. 


Let, 


let, 




let. 


Lie [to recline), 


lay, 




lain. 


Light, 


lighted, 


lit, 


lighted, lit. 



64 PEINCIPAL PAETS OF PRIMITIVE IEREG. VERBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Lose, 


lost, 


lost. 


Make, 


made, 


made. 


Mean, 


meant, 


meant. 


Meet, 


met, 


met. 


Mow, 


mowed, 


mowed, mown. 


Pay, 


paid, 


paid. 


Pen (to coop), 


penned, pent, 


penned; pent. 


Put, 


put, 


put. 


Quit, 


quit, quitted, 


quit, quitted. 


Rap (to seize), 


rapped, rapt, 


rapped, rapt. 


Read, 


read, 


read. 


Rid, 


rid, ridded, 


rid, ridded. 


Ride, 


rode, 


ridden. 


Ring, 


rang, rung, 


rung. 


Rise, 


rose, 


risen. 


Rive, 


rived, 


rived, riven. 


Run, 


ran, run, 


run. 


Say, 


said, 


said. 


Saw, 


sawed, 


sawed, sawn. 


See, 


saw, 


seen. 


Seek, 


sought, 


sought. 


Seethe, 


seethed, 


seethed, sodden. 


Sell, 


sold, 


sold. 


Send, 


sent, 


sent. 


Set, 


set, 


set. 


Shake, 


shook, 


shaken. 


Shape, 


shaped, 


shaped, shapen. 


Shave, 


shaved, 


shaved, shaven. 


Shear, 


sheared, 


sheared, shorn. 


Shed, 


shed, 


shed. 


Shine, 


shone, shined, 


shone, shined. 


Shoe, 


shod, 


shod. 


Shoot, 


shot, 


shot. 


Show, 


showed, 


shown, showed. 


Shred, 


shred, 


shred. 


Shrink, 


shrunk, 


shrunk. 


Shut, 


shut, 


shut. 


Sing, 


sung, sang, 


sung. 


Sink, 


sunk, sank, 


sunk. 


Sit, 


sat, 


sat. 


Slay, 


slew, 


slain. 



PEINCIPAL PAETS OF PRIMITIVE IEEEG. VEEBS. 65 



Present. 

Sleep, 
Slide, 


Past. 

slent, 
slid, 


Perfect Part. 
slept. 
slid, slidden. 


Sling, 
Slink, 


slung, 

slunk, 


slung, 
slunk. 


Slit, 


slit, slitted, 


slit, slitted. 


Smell, 


smelled, smelt, 


smelled, smelt. 


Smite, 


smote, 


smitten, smit. 


Sow, 


sowed, 


sowed, sown. 


Speak, 

Speed, 

Spell, 

Spend, 

Spill, 


spoke, spake, 
sped, speeded, 
spelled, spelt, 
spent, 
spilled, spilt, 


spoken, 
sped, speeded, 
spelled, spelt, 
spent, 
spilled, spilt. 


Spin, 

Spit, 

Split, 

Spoil, 

Spread, 


spun, 
spit, spat, 
split, splitted, 
spoiled, spoilt, 
spread, 


spun. 

spit. 

split, splitted. 

spoiled, spoilt. 

spread. 


Spring, 
Stand, 


sprung, sprang, 
stood, 


sprung. 

stood. 


Stave, 


staved, stove, 


staved, stove. 


Stay, 
Steal, 


stayed, staid, 
stole, 


stayed, staid, 
stolen. 


Stick, 


stuck, 


stuck. 


Sting, 
Strew, 


stung, 
strewed, 


stung, 
strewed, strewn. 


Stride, 


strid, strode, 


strid, stridden. 


Strike, 


struck, 


struck, stricken. 


String, 
Strive, 


strung, 
strove, 


strung, 
striven. 


Strow, 


strown, 


strowed, strown. 


Swear, 


swore, 


sworn. 


Sweat, 


sweat, sweated, 


sweat, sweated. 


Sweep, 
Swell, 


swept, 
swelled, 


swept. 

swelled, swollen, 


Swim, 


swam, swum, 


swum. 


Swing, 
Take, 


swung, 
took, 


swung, 
taken. 


Teach, 
Tear, 


taught, 
tore, 


taught, 
torn. 


Tell, 


told, 


told. 



6* 



DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 



Present. 


Past. 


Perfect Part. 


Think, 


thought, 


thought. 


Thrive, 


thrived, 


thrived, thriven. 


Throw, 


threw, 


thrown. 


Thrust, 


thrust, 


thrust. 


Tread, 


trod, 


trod, trodden. 


Wax, 


waxed, 


waxed, waxen. 


Wear, 


wore, 


worn. 


Weave, 


wove, 


woven, wove. 


Weep, 


wept, 


wept. 


Wet, 


wet, wetted, 


wet, wetted. 


Win, 


won, 


won. 


Wind, 


wound, 


wound. 


Work, 


worked, wrought, 


worked, wrought 


Wring, 


wrung, 


wrung. 


Write, 


wrote, 


written. 



DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 

A Defective Verb is one which has no participles, and is 
not used in all the modes and tenses. 
Defective verbs are irregular. 



Present. 
Beware, 
Can, 
Hark, 

May, 
Must, 
Ought, 



LIST OF DEFECTIVE VEKBS. 



Past. 



could. 



might, 
ought. 



Present. 


Past. 


Quoth, 


quoth. 


Shall, 


should 


Will, 


would. 


Wis, 


wist. 


Wit, 


wot. 



REMARKS. 

Beware is used mostly in the imperative mode, but may be used in 
other modes. 

Hark is now used only in the imperative. 

Ought, which is nearly equivalent to should (the past tense of 
shall), is employed in connection with the infinitive mode of other 
verbs-, as, "I ought to go/' — "He ought to learn." — "She ought 
to have gone." 

Ought is in the present tense when followed by the present tense 



AUXILIARY VERBS. 67 

of the infinitive, and in the past tense when followed by the present 
perfect tense of the infinitive. 

Quoth is now seldom used, except in humor or satire. 

Wis [know) and wist [knew) are obsolete. 

Wit is employed only in the infinitive [to wit) ; when thus used it 
is equivalent to namely or that is to say, and is used in legal lan- 
guage to call attention to particulars ; its past tense wot is not now 
used. 

Can, may, shall, and will, and their past tenses, and must, are used 
only in forming tenses of other verbs. 

The unipersonal verbs would (meaning wish), meseems, and me- 
tMnks, are also defective. 

AUXILIAEY VERBS. 

An Auxiliary Verb is one which helps to form the 
modes and tenses of other verbs. 

The only tenses which may not be formed by means of auxiliaries 
are the present and the past of the indicative and the subjunctive, 
and the present of the imperative and the infinitive, in the active 
voice ; as, "I loved." — " Love thou ;" — to love; and even these, except 
the present infinitive, have complex forms ; as, " If I did love." 

The auxiliary verbs are be, do, have, will, can, may, 
shall, must, and need. 

REMARKS. 

Be, do, have, need, and will, are also complete or principal verbs ; 
they are auxiliary, when used with a participle or with any other 
part of a principal verb. 

Can, may, must, and shall, are auxiliary verbs only. 

Be is used as an auxiliary throughout all its parts in aiding to 
form the passive voice and the progressive form of other verbs. 

Do is used as an auxiliary only in its present and in its past tense. 

Have is used as an auxiliary in its present and its past tense, and 
in its imperfect participle. 

Need is used as an auxiliary only in its present tense, chiefly in 
sentences expressing requirement or obligation ; as, " The mes- 
senger need not return." It makes one of the variations of the 
potential mode. 

Can, may, shall, and will, have each two tenses only, the present 
and the past; and must and need but one, the present. 



68 CONJUGATION, ETC. 



FORMS OF AUXILIARY VERBS. 

Present. Am, Do, Have, Shall, Will, May, Can, Must. Need. 

Past. was, did, had, should, would, might, could. — — 

Part. being, — having, — — — — — — 

been. — had. 

CONJUGATION. 
The Inflection of a verb is called Conjugation. 
The Conjugation of a verb is the regular arrangement 
of its several voices, modes, tenses, numbers, and persons. 

CONJUGATION OP THE AUXILIAEIES. 

CAN. 

Present : — Sign of the Potential Present. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I can, 1. We can, 

2. Thou canst, 2. You can, 

3. He can ; 3. They can. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I could, 1. We could, 

2. Thou couldst, 2. You could, 

3. He could ; 3. They could. 

MAT. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I may, 1. We may, 

2. Thou mayst, 2. You may, 

3. He may ; 3. They may. 

Past: — Sign of the Potential Past 

1. I might, 1. We might, 

2. Thou mightst, 2. You might, 

3. He might ; 3. They might. 



CONJUGATION OF THE AUXILIARIES. 69 

SHALL. 

Present : — Sigh of Future Tenses. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I shall, 1. We shall, 

2. Thou shalt. 2. You shall, 

3. He shall • 3. They shall. 

Past : — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I should, 1. We should, 

2. Thou shouldst, 2. You should, 

3. He should ; 3. They should. 

MUST. 
Present : — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I must, 1. We must, 

2. Thou must, 2. You must, 

3. He must; 3. They must. 

WILL. 
Present : — Sign of Future Tenses. 

1. I will, 1. We will, 

2. Thou wilt, 2. You will, 

3. He will ; 3. They will. 

Past: — Sign of the Potential Past. 

1. I would, 1. We would, 

2. Thou wouldst, 2. You would, 

3. He would ; 3. They would. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal Parts. — Present, 
Will; Past, Willed; Perfect Participle, Willed. Participles. — Im- 
perfect, Willing ; Perfect, Willed ; Preperfect, Having willed. 

NEED. 

Present: — Sign of the Potential Present. 

1. I need, 1. We need, 

2. Thou needst, 2. You need, 

3. He need ; 3. They need. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal Parts. — Present, 
Need ; Past, Needed ; Perfect Participle, Needed. Participles. — 
Imperfect, Needing ; Perfect, Needed ; Preperfect : , Having needed. 



it m^ t>™ » 



70 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO BE 



DO. 

Present : — Sign of the Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I do, 1. We do, 

2. Thou dost, 2. You do, 

3. He does ; 3. They do. 

Past: — Sign of the Past Tense. 

1. I did, 1. We did, 

2. Thou didst, 2. You did, 

3. He did; 3. They did. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal Parts. — Present, 
Do ; Past, Did ; Perfect Participle, Done. Participles. — Imperfect, 
Doing ; Perfect, Done ; Preperfect, Having done. 

HAVE. 

Present : — Sign of the Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have, 1. We have, 

2. Thou hast, 2. You have, 

3. He has ; 3. They have. 

Past : — Sign of the Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had, 1. We had, 

2. Thou hadst, 2. You had, 

3. He had ; 3. They had. 

When used as a principal verb : — Principal Parts. — Present, 
Have ; Past, Had ; Perfect Participle, Had. Participles. — Imper- 
fect, Having ; Perfect, Had ; Preperfect, Having had. 



CONJUGATION OP THE INTKANSITIVE VEEB 

"TO BE." 

PRINCIPAL PARTS. 
Present. — Am. Past. — Was. Perfect Participle. — Been. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE." 71 







INDICATIVE MODE. 






Present Tense. 




Singular. 


Plural. 


I. 


I am, 


1. We are, 


2. 


Thou art, 


2. You are, 


3. 


He is; 


3.* They are. 
Past Tense. 


1. 


I was, 


1. "We were, 


2. 


Thou wast 


, 2. You were, 


3. 


He was ; 


3. They were. 



Future Tense; — implying simply future time. 

1. I shall be, 1. We shall be, 

2. Thou wilt be, 2. You will be, 

3. He will be ; 3. They will be. 

Future Tense; — implying promise, command, or threat. 

1. I will be, 1. We will be, 

2. Thou shalt be, 2. You shall be, 

3. He shall be ; 3. They shall be. 

When questions are asked, these forms reverse their meaning; 
that is, the second expresses future time, and the first has reference 
to determination or command. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been, 1. We have been, 

2. Thou hast been, 2. You have been, 

3. He has been ; 3. They have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been, 1. We had been, 

2. Thou hadst been, 2. You had been, 

3. He had been; 3. They had been. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been, 1. We shall or will have been, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been, 2. You will or shall have been, 

3. He will or shall have been ; 3. They will or shall have been. 



72 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB " TO BE." 

The auxiliaries shall and will have nearly the same meaning in 
the future perfect as in the future tense. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

In this mode the auxiliaries of the present tense are may, can, 
must, and need ; 

— Of the past tense, might, could, woidd, and should; 

— Of the present perfect tense, may have, can have, must have, 
and need have ; 

— Of the past perfect tense, might have, could have, would have, and 
should have. Of these only one in each tense will here be given. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I may be, 1. We may be, 

2. Thou mayst be, 2. You may be, 

3. He may be ; 3. They may be. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might be, 1. We might be, 

2. Thou mightst be, 2. You might be, 

3. He might be; 3. They might be. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have been, 1. We may have been, 

2. Thou mayst have been, 2. You may have been, 

3. He may have been ; 3. They may have been. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I might have been, 1. We might have been, 

2. Thou mightst have been, 2. You might have been, 

3. He might have been ; 3. They might have been. 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verb "to be" in every tense of this mode, 
using ill the auxiliaries. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Verbs in the indicative and the potential mode, as "well as 
those in the subjunctive, are preceded % by the conjunctions if, 
though, etc.; therefore some grammarians teach that there are three 
forms of the subjunctive mode, viz.: the Subjunctive Proper, the 
Subjunctive Indicative, and the Subjunctive Potential. But it 



CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB " TO BE." 73 

requires a distinct form of the verb to constitute a distinct mode, 
and this distinct form is foufid in the subjunctive mode in the 
present and the past tense only ; strictly, therefore, the Subjunctive 
Proper is the only subjunctive mode. 

When the indicative and the potential mode are preceded by the 
conjunctions named, they may be parsed as the indicative and the 
potential mode, used subjunctively. 

Present Tense. 

Singular, Plural. 

1. If I be, 1. If we be, 

2. If thou be, 2. If you be, 

3. If he be; 3. If they be. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were, 1. If we were, 

2. If thou were, 2. If you were, 

3. If he were; 3. If they were. 

The present tense of the subjunctive expresses future time; as, 
" If it be necessary, I will go to-morrow" ; that is, " If it shall be 
necessary, etc." 

The past tense expresses present time; as, "If it were done, all 
anxiety would be at an end"; that is, "If it were done now, etc." 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 



^1 



Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

Be, or be thou, * • ( Be, or be you, 

Do be, or do thou be; ( Do be, or do you be. 



The form of any verb having the auxiliaries do or did placed before 
it, is called the Emphatic Form, because it denotes emphasis. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be. Present Perfect Tense. — To have been. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being. Perfect. — Been. Preperfect. — Having been. 

7 



74 



EEMAEKS ON THE VEEB " TO BE.' 



' Be was formerly used in the indicative present for am, thus : — I 
be, thou beest, he be; We be, ye be, they be. This form is now con- 
sidered contrary to good usage. 

Wert is sometimes used for were, in the second person singular of 
the past subjunctive, and improperly for wast in the past indicative. 

Were sometimes means would be; it should be parsed according to 
its form, and not according to its meaning, as in the subjunctive 
mode; as, " It were vain to contend against such odds." 

The forms had be, and had been, denoting comparison or pre- 
ference, are often used for would be, and would have been; as, " I 
had rather be a dog, than such a Bonian." — " It had been better for 
him if he had not done it." 

Such expressions should be avoided, and the past, or the past per- 
fect tense of the potential, should be used. 

The conjunctions if, though, etc., are sometimes omitted, and the 
nominative is placed after the verb, or between the verb and the 
auxiliary ; as, Were I, for, if I were ; had he gone, for, if he had 
gone ; should he stay, for, if he should stay. 

Exercise I. — Mention the mode, tense, number, and person, of each part 
of the verh "to be" in the following expressions, and conjugate the mode 
and the tense of each part : — 

Thou art. He has been. We shall be. I may be. If I were. Be. To 
be. They had been. Thou wilt have been. You could be. They 
might have been. If he be. You were. He may have been. Be you. 
He need be. She should be. It was. To have been. She would havo 
been. 

Exercise II. — Give, in regular order, all the first persons singular of 
the verb "to be" in the indicative mode; — all the first persons plural; — 
all the second persons singular; — all the second persons plural; — all the third 
persons singular; — and all the third persons plural. 

Give also all the first persons plural in the potential mode; — all the third 
persons plural; — all the second persons singular, and second persons plural^ 
in the subjunctive mode. 

The preceding exercise is one of Synopsis. 

A Synopsis is a collection of parts so arranged as to give a 
general view of the whole. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VEEB "TO LOVE — ETC. 75 

CONJUGATION OP THE VEEB 

"TO LOVE." 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

PEINCIPAL PAETS. 
Present. — Love. Past. — Loved. Per/. Participle. — Loved. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I love, 1. We love, 

2. Thoulovest, 2. You love, 

3. He loves ; 3. They love. 

Present Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1. I do love, 1. We do love, 

2. Thou dost love, 2. You do love, 

3. He does love ; 3. They do love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I loved, 1. We loved, 

2. Thou lovedst, 2. You loved, 

3. He loved ; 3. They loved. 

Past Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

1. I did love, I. We did love, 

2. Thou didst love, 2. You did love, 

3. He did love ; 3. They did love. 

Future Tense: — implying simply future time. 

1. I shall love, 1. We shall love, 

2. Thou wilt love, 2. You will love, 

3. He will love ; 3. They will love. 



76 CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE" — ETC. 

Future Tense: — implying promise, command, or threat. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I will love, 1. We will love, 

2. Thou shalt love, 2. You shall love, 

3. He shall love; 3. They shall love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have loved, 1. We have loved, 

2. Thou hast loved, 2. You have loved, 

3. He has loved ; 3. They have loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had loved, i. We had loved, 

2. Thou hadst loved, 2. You had loved, 

3. He had loved ; 3. They had loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have loved, 1. We shall or will have loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have loved, 2. You will or shall have loved, 

3. He will or shall have loved; 3. They will or shall have loved. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may love, 1. We may love, 

2. Thou mayst love, 2. You may love, 

3. He may love ; 3. They may love. 

Past Tense. 

1. I might love, 1. We might love, 

2. Thou mightst love, 2. You might love, 

3. He might love ; 3. They might love. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I may have loved, 1. We may have loved, 

2. Thou mayst have loved, 2. You may have loved, 

3. He may have loved ; 3. They may have loved. 



CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LOVE" — ETC. 77 

Past Perfect Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might have loved, 1. We might have loved, 

2 Thou mightst have loved, 2. You might have loved, 

3. He might have loved ; 3. They might have loved. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 





Present Tense. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


If I love, I. If we love, 
If thou love, 2. If you love, 
If he love ; 3. If they love. 


1. 

2. 
3. 


Present Tense : — Emphatic Form. 

If I do love, 1. If we do love, 
If thou do love, 2. If you do love, 
If he do love ; 3. If they do love. 




Past Tense. 


1. 
2. 

3. 


If I loved, 1. If we loved, 
If thou loved, 2. If you loved, 
If he loved ; 3. If they loved. 


1. 
2. 
3. 


Past Tense: — Emphatic Form. 

If I did love, 1. If we did love, 
If thou did love, 2. If you did love, 
If he did love ; 3. If they did love, 



IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 
2. Love, love thou, or 2. Love, love you, or 

do thou love ; do you love. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — To love. Present Perfect. — To have loved. 

7* 



78 PASSIVE VOICE. 

PARTICIPLES. 
Imperfect. — Loving. Perfect. — Loved. Prejperfect. — Having loved. 

REMARK. 

The third person singular formerly ended in eth. This termination, 
and liath for has, and doth for does, are used only in solemn style. 

Exekcise I. — Conjugate the verbs to learn, to take, to rule, and to teach, 
in the active voice, in the same manner as the verb "to love." 

Exercise 1 1. — Give orally, or write out, a synopsis of the verb to love, 
in the first person singular, in all the modes of the active voice ; thus : / 
love, or I do love; I loved, or r did lone; I shall love, etc. 

Give orally, or write out, a synopsis of the same verb in the second person 
singular, in all the modes of the active voice ; — in the second person plural; 
■ — in the third person plural; — of the verb to take in the third person sin- 
gular, in all the modes of the active voice ; — in the first person plural. 

Exercise III. — Mention the mode, tense, number, and person of the 
verbs in the following expressions : — 

Thou writest. He taught. Speak you. He may learn. If I love. They 
do learn. He will take. I had walked. Thou mightst rule. You may 
have listened. I understood. He has explained. Speak. To have heard. 
If thou ruled. We might have obeyed. They would write. We must 
study. You should have listened. It has amused. She will have taken. 
He need not go. They had come. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
The Passive Voice of a verb is formed by combining 
with its perfect participle the variations of the auxiliary 
verb to be. 

There are eleven variations of the verb " to be/' namely ; — am, 
art, is, are, was, wast, were, (wert)/be, been, and being. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I am loved, 1. We are loved, 

2. Thou art loved, 2. You are loved, 

3. He is loved ; 3. They are loved. 



PASSIVE VOICE. 79 

Pyst Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I was loved, 1. We were loved, 

2. Thou wast loved, 2. You were loved, 

3. He was loved ; 3. They were loved. 

Future Tense : — implying simply future time. 

1. I shall be loved, 1. We shall be loved, 

2. Thou wilt be loved, 2. You will be loved, 

3. He will be loved ; 3. They will be loved. 

Future Tense: — implying 'promise, command, or threat. 

1. I will be loved, 1. We will be loved, 

2. Thou shalt be loved, 2. You shall be loved, 

3. He shall be loved; 3. They shall be loved. 

Present Perfect Tense. 

1. I have been loved, 1. We have been loved, 

2. Thou hast been loved, 2. You have been loved, 

3. He has been loved; 3. They have been loved. 

Past Perfect Tense. 

1. I had been loved, 1. We had been loved, 

2. Thou hadst been loved, 2. You had been loved, 

3. He had been loved ; 3. They had been loved. 

Future Perfect Tense. 

1. I shall or will have been loved, 1. We shall or will have been loved, 

2. Thou wilt or shalt have been 2. You will or shall have been 

loved, loved, 

3. He will or shall have been 3. They will or shall have been 

loved : loved. 



POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. I may be loved, 1. We may be loved, 

2. Thou mayst be loved, 2. You may be loved, 

3. He may be loved ; 3. They may be loved. 



80 PASSIVE VOICE. 

Past Tense. 

Singular. Plural. 

1. I might be loved, 1. We might be loved, 

2. Thou mightst be loved, 2. You might be loved, 

3. He might be loved ; 3. They might be loved. 

Present Perfect 

1. I may have been loved, 1. We may have been loved, 

2. Thou mayst have been loved, 2. You may have been loved, 

3. He may have been loved ; 3. They may have been loved. 

Past Perfect 

1. I might have been loved, 1. We might have been loved, 

2. Thou mightst have been loved, 2. You might have been loved, 

3. He might have been loved ; 3. They might have been loved, 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

1. If I be loved, 1. If we be loved, 

2. If thou be loved, 2. If you be loved, 

3. If he be loved; 3. If they be loved. 

Past Tense. 

1. If I were loved, 1. If we were loved, 

2. If thou were loved, 2. If you were loved, 

3. If he were loved ; 3. If they were loved. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. 

2. Be loved, be thou loved, or 2. Be loved, be you loved, or 
do thou be loved. do you be loved. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — To be loved. Present Perfect. — To have been loved. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being loved. Perfect. — Loved. Preperfect. — Having 
been loved. 



PROGRESSIVE FORM. 81 

Exercise I. — Conjugate tj^e verbs to advise, to take, to rule, and to teach, 
in the passive voice, in the same manner as the verb " to love" is conjugated 
in the passive voice. 

Exercise 1 1. — Give a synopsis of the verb " to love" in the first person 
singular, passive; — of the verb "to advise" in the second person sin- 
gular; — of the verb "to take" in the first person plural; — of the verb "to 
rule" in the second person plural; — of the verb "to teach" in the third 
person plural. 

Exercise III. — Mention the mode, tense, number, and person, of each 
verb in the following expressions : — 

I have been loved. Thou wast advised. You are taught. It is taken. 
He shall be ruled. They had been loved. He may be asked. It was 
broken. If she be taken. Be thou advised. He might be chosen. You 
could have been taught. Be advised. To be done. It should be found. 
If he were taught. They have been seen. Thou mightst be ruled. To 
have been stolen. He will have been heard. They are told. It should 
have been written. Thou art ruled. You can be advised. Thou needst not 
be troubled. 

THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

The Progressive Form of a verb is that which represents the con- 
tinuance of the action, the being, or the state, asserted by the verb; 
as, "I am writing" — " Thou art standing." — " He ivas sleeping." 

The progressive form of a verb is made by combining its imper- 
fect participle with the variations of the auxiliary verb to be. 

Some verbs by reason of their use and meaning do not properly 
have a progressive form; "lam esteeming," for instance, means 
simply, "I esteem." 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO LEARN," 
IN THE PROGRESSIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

INDICATIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. I am learning, 2. Thou art learning, 3. He is 

learning; etc. 
Past Tense. — 1. I was learning, 2. Thou wast learning, 3. He 

was learning ; etc. 



Future Tense. — 1. I shall or -will be learning, 2. Thou wilt or shalt 
be learning, 3. He will or shall be learning ; etc. 

Present Perfect. — 1. I have been learning, 2. Thou hast been learn- 
ing, 3. He has been learning ; etc. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I had been learning, 2. Thou hadst been learn- 
ing, 3. He had been learning ; etc. 

Future Perfect. — 1. I shall or will hare been learning, 2. Thou wilt 
or shalt have been learning, 3. He will or shall 
have been learning ; etc. 

POTENTIAL MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. I may be learning, 2. Thou mayst be learn- 
ing, 3. He may be learning ; etc. 

Past Tense. — 1. I might be learning, 2. Thou mightst be learn- 
ing, 3. He might be learning; etc. 

Present Perfect. — 1. I may have been learning, 2. Thou mayest 
have been learning, 3. He may have been 
learning; etc. 

Past Perfect. — 1. I might have been learning, 2. Thou mightst 
have been learning, 3. He might have been 
learning; etc. 

SUBJUNCTIVE MODE. 

Present Tense. — 1. If I be learning, 2. If thou be learning, 3. If 

he be learning ; etc. 
Past Tense. — 1. If 1 were learning, 2. If thou were learning, 

3. If he were learning ; etc. 

IMPERATIVE MODE. 
Present Tense. — 2. Be thou learning, or do thou be learning ; etc. 

INFINITIVE MODE. 

Present Tense — To be learning. Present Perfect Tense. — To have 
been learning. 

PARTICIPLES. 

Imperfect. — Being learning. Perfect. — Been learning. Prejper- 

fect. — Having been learning. 



INTERROGATIVE FORM. 83 



REMARKS. 

The progressive form is usually restricted to the active voice, 
although it is sometimes made in the present and the past tense in 
the passive voice by combining with the perfect passive participle 
of the verb, the variations of the auxiliary verb to be; as, "The 
work is being examined." — " The house was then being constructed." 

The use of the progressive form in the passive voice is of doubtful 
propriety, even though it is sanctioned by many good writers. It 
is preferable to adopt some other mode of expression : thus, instead 
of, " The house was then being constructed," it would be better to say, 
" The house was then in course of construction :" — for, " The work 
is being examined," say, " The work is wider examination." 

Some transitive verbs in the progressive form of the active voice 
have, in the third person, a passive signification; as, "These stocks 
are selling at a premium." 

Exercise. — Conjugate the verbs to buy, to read, and to write, in the pro- 
gressive form, in the same manner as the verb "to learn" is conjugated in the 
progressive form. 

THE INTERKOGATIVE FOEM. 

The Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to ask a 
question; as, "Can he learn?" — "Shall he be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively by placing the subject im- 
mediately after the verb, between the auxiliary and the verb, or 
after the first auxiliary when two or more auxiliaries are used ; as, 
" Hearest thou?" — "Mag he come?" — "Might he have been called?" 

The interrogative form is used only in the indicative and in the 
potential mode. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE," 

IN THE INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — See I, or do I see? Saw I, or did I see? 
Shall or will I see? Have I seen? Had I seen? Shall or will I 
have seen ? 

Potential. — May I see? Might I see? May I have seen? 
Might I have seen ? 

Progressive Form. — Am I seeing? Was I seeing? Shall or will 



84 NEGATIVE FORM. 

I be seeing ? Have I been seeing ? Had I been seeing ? Shall or 
will I have been seeing ? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — Am I seen? Was I seen? Shall or will I be 
seen? Have I been seen? Had I been seen? Shall or will I have 
been seen ? 

Potential. — May I be seen? Might I be seen? May I have 
been seen ? Might I have been seen ? 

THE NEGATIVE FORM. 

The Negative Form of a verb is that which is used to express nega- 
tion or denial; as. " He does not study." 

A verb is conjugated negatively by placing the adverb not imme- 
diately after it, or after the first auxiliary; as, "They care not" — 
" He can not return." — " They will not be governed." 

The negative not, however, precedes the participles and the in- 
finitive; as, Not being loved; not to see. 

The negative form is used in all the modes, and with the partici- 
ples. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE," 
IN THE NEGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — I see not, or I do not see. I saw not, or I 
did not see. I shall or will not see. I have not seen. I had not 
seen. I shall or will not have seen. 

Potential. — I may not see. I might not see. I may not have 
seen. I might not have seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I see not. If I saw not. 

Infinitive. — Not to see. Not to have seen. 

Participles. — Not seeing. Not having seen. 

Progressive Form. — I am not seeing. I was not seeing. I shall 
or will not be seeing. I have not been seeing. I had not been 
seeing. I shall or will not have been seeing, etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 
Indicative Mode. — I am not seen. I was not seen. I shall or 
will not be seen. I have not been seen. I had not been seen. I 
shall or will not be seen. 



NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM. 85 

Potential. — I may not be *en. I. might not be seen. I may not 
have been seen. I might not have been seen. 

Subjunctive. — If I be not seen. If I were not seen. 
Infinitive. — Not to be seen. Not to have been seen. 
Participles. — Not being seen. Not having been seen. 

TEE NEGATIVE-INTERKOGATIVE FORM. 

The Negative-Interrogative Form of a verb is that which is used to 
ask a question with negation; as, " Shall they not be taught?" 

A verb is conjugated interrogatively and negatively by placing the 
subject followed by not, immediately after the verb, or after the first 
auxiliary ; as, " Cares he not?" — " Might he not improve?" 

The negative-interrogative form is used only in the indicative mode 
and in the potential. 

CONJUGATION OF THE VERB "TO SEE/' 
IN THE NEGATIVE-INTERROGATIVE FORM. 

ACTIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — See I not, or do I not see? Saw I not, or did 
I not see? Shall or will I not see? Have I not seen? Had I not 
seen? Shall or will I not have seen? 

Potential. — May I not see? Might I not see? May I not have 
seen? Might I not have seen? 

Progressive Form. — Am I not seeing? Was I not seeing? Shall 
or will I not be seeing ? Have I not been seeing ? Had I not been 
seeing? Shall or will I not be seeing? etc. 

PASSIVE VOICE. 

Indicative Mode. — Am I not seen? Was I not seen? Shall or 
will I not be seen? Have I not been seen? Had I not been seen? 
Shall or will I not have been seen? 

Potential. — May I not be seen? Might I not be seen? May I 
not have been seen? Might I not have been seen ? 

Exercise I. — Conjugate the verb to rule in the interrogative form. 

Conjugate the verb to teach in the negative form. 

Conjugate the verb to take in the negative-interrogative form. 

Exercise 1 1. — Mention the principal parts, form, voice, mode, tense, 
number, and person, of each of the following verbs, and conjugate each in 
its mode and tense — 

8 



86 EXEPwCISES. 

(A verb not in the progressive, the emphatic, the interrogative, the negative, 
or the negative-interrogative form, is said to be in the common form.) 

He was taught. I may be ruling. Thou wast singing. We may not be 
heard. Might I not know ? He does learn. She did study. It was said. 
I have been dreaming. If they do come. Do attend. Awake. Do not 
disobey. She should have listened. Has he been punished ? Will you not 
believe ? We might not have been seen. When will it be done ? Would he 
try, he might succeed. The book has been published. Truth is mighty and 
will prevail. Having written a letter, he mailed it. I strove to perform the 
task. Could it have been accomplished ? Boys were reciting lessons. He 
died, esteemed by all who knew him. 

Exercise III. — Parse the verbs in the following sentences: — 
1. — " Success will attend his efforts, if he continue attentive." 

Models. — Will attend. — Success will attend efforts. — "Will attend" is a 
verb, "A Verb is a word, etc."; — transitive, because it has an object (efforts) ; — 
regular, because its past tense and perfect participle are formed by suffixing 
ed to the present tense (pres. attend, past attended, perf. part, attended); — in 
the active voice, because it shows that the subject does the action expressed 
by the verb; — indicative mode, because it expresses a positive assertion; — 
future tense, because it denotes future time; — in the singular number, third 
person, because its subject (success) is, with which it agrees. 

Continue. — (If) lie continue. — "Continue" is a verb, "A Verb is a word, 
etc.";— -intransitive, etc.; — regular, etc. (pres. continue, past continued, perf. 
part, continued); — it has no voice; — subjunctive mode, etc.; — present tense, 
etc.; — in the singular number, third person, because its subject (he) is, with 
which it agrees. 

2. — " Write your letters, boys, that they may be taken to the post-office." 
Write. — Write (you) letters. — " Write" is a verb, etc. ; — transitive, etc. ; — 
irregular, etc. (write, wrote, written) ; — active voice, etc. ; — imperative mode, 
etc. ; — present tense, etc. ; — in the plural number, second person, because its 
subject (you, understood) is, with which it agrees. 

May be taken. — They maybe taken. — "May be taken" is a verb, etc.; — 
transitive, etc.; — irregular, etc. (take, took, taken); — passive voice, etc.; — 
potential mode, etc. ; — present tense, etc.; — in the plural number, third person, 
because its subject (they) is, with which it agrees. 

3. — "If he is obliged to go, I can not prevent him." 

Is obliged. — (If) he is obliged. — "Is obliged" is a verb, etc.; — transitive, 
etc.; — regular, etc. (oblige, obliged, obliged); — passive voice, etc.; — indicative 
mode (used subjunctively, because it expresses uncertainty or contingency); 



EXEECISES. 87 

— present tense, etc. ; — in the singular number, third person, because its sub- 
ject (he) is, with which it agrees. 

To go. — Is obliged to go. — "To go" is a verb, etc.; — intransitive, etc.; — 
irregular, etc. (go, went, gone); — it has no voice; — infinitive mode, etc.; — 
present tense, etc. ; — it is not limited by number or person, because it has no 
subject; — it depends upon the finite verb is obliged, which it completes in 
meaning. 
4. — " Did all men show charity, how much misery would be prevented." 
Did show. — Men did show charity. — " Did show" is a verb, etc.; — transitive, 
etc. ; — irregular, etc. (show, showed, shown) ; — " active voice, etc."; — subjunctive 
mode, etc.; — past tense, etc.; — emphatic form, etc.; — in the plural number, 
third person, because its subject (men) is, with which it agrees. 

Participles. — Parse the participles, etc., in the following sentences:— 
1. — " The prisoner, convicted of murder, was sentenced to be hanged." 

Models. — Convicted. — (Prisoner) convicted. — "Convicted" is the perfect 
participle of the passive voice of the transitive regular verb "to convict" 
(imperf. being convicted, perf. convicted, preperf. having been convicted) ; — it 
describes the noun prisoner. 

2. — " The falling of the burning timbers caused the death of a fireman." 

Falling. — Falling caused. — " Falling" is the imperfect participle of the 
verb "to fall" (imperf. falling, -pert, fallen, preperf. having fallen) ; — it is used 
as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; — 
in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb caused. 

Burning. — Burning timbers. — "Burning" is the imperfect participle of the 
verb "to burn" (imperf. burning, perf. burned, preperf. having burned); — it is 
used as an adjective; — it can not be compared, and it describes the noun 
timbers. 

Parse the verbs, the participles, the participial adjectives, and the participial 
nouns in the following sentences : — 

Bees make honey. Revenge dwells in little minds. The rich soil yielded 
fruit and flowers in abundance. Virtue will procure esteem. The bird has 
built her nest in the old tree. The sultry heat of summer had passed away. 
An angry man opens his mouth and shuts his eyes. The hunter returned 
laden with the spoils of the chase. Rome was founded in 753 before 
Christ. The cottages of the peasants were consigned to the flames. He 
who is ignorant of happiness may possess wealth, but he cannot truly 
enjoy it. 

Never entertain unreasonable expectations, for you will be disappointed. 
If thou pretended to know the truth, then thy ignorance were the greatei 
crime. Unless we rule ourselves, we will be ruled by others. Man may 



88 ADVEEBS. 

sow the seed, but he cannot cause it to grow. Can any business be con- 
ducted successfully, if punctuality be habitually disregarded? If James 
study diligently, he will improve. The loss might have been prevented, 
if ordinary care had been taken. Though thou obeyed the law in all its 
requirements, thou wouldst not merit praise. If a community existed in 
which each regarded the rights of others, bolts and bars were needless. 

The sun sets, and the mountains are shaded. The shadows of evening are 
thickening, and the gray mists are rising in the valley. The assassin, having 
given the fatal blow, fled without waiting to watch the result. The forests 
of mighty trees under which the lands are groaning, must be cleared 
away before we can sow the seed of future harvests. But whatever be our 
fate, be assured that this declaration will stand. Bead good books, seek 
good companions, attend to good counsels, and imitate good examples. 
If we cannot command our thoughts, we must not hope to control our 
actions. "When Christianity shall have prevailed in its purity over all the 
earth, then may we hope that wars and rumors of wars will cease. 

Exercise IV. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, and adjective? 
in the preceding sentences. 



ADVERBS. 



An Adverb is a word used to qualify a verb, an 
adjective, or another adverb; as, "They were not dili- 
gent, and advanced very slowly in their studies." 

An adverb may qualify a preposition; as, " The vessel was struck 
immediately above the water-line." 

An adverb may also qualify several words taken together; as, 
" He held out nearly to the end, and then yielded/' — " The arrow 
was aimed directly at the heart of the captive. 7 ' 

BEMABKS. 
An adverb is usually an abridged expression denoting by one 
word an equivalent for two or more words ; slowly, for instance, is 
equivalent to in a slow manner. 



CLASSES OF ADVERBS. 89 

Such expressions as at length, at once, of course, in vain, in short, 
etc., each of which usually consists of a preposition and a noun or 
an adjective following, have been termed adverbial phrases, and parsed 
simply as adverbs ; but whenever the words in such expressions can 
be parsed separately, it is better to parse them so. 

The expressions by and by, upside down, now and then, etc., are 
Complex Adverbs when the words composing them cannot be parsed 
separately. 

Adverbs formed by uniting two or more words, with or without 
the hyphen, are Compound Adverbs; as, elsewhere, somehow, topsy- 
turvy, helter-skelter, etc. 

CLASSES OF ADVEKBS. 

Adverbs may be divided into five general classes; Adverbs of 
Manner, of Time, of Place, of Degree, and of Interrogation. 

I. Adverbs of Manner generally answer to the question, How? 
Most of them are formed from adjectives or participles by sufiixing 
ly ; and a few by suffixing how or wise. 

Adverbs of manner may be subdivided as follows : — 

1. — Of quality; as, fain, ill, lief so, thus, well, badly, easily, fool- 
ishly, gladly, sweetly, anyhow, somehow, likewise, otherwise, etc. 

2. — Of affirmation; as, amen, ay, certainly, doubtless, forsooth, 
indeed, surely, truly, verily, yea, yes, etc. 

3. — Of negation; as, nay, no, not, nowise, etc. 

4. — Of uncertainty; as, haply, may-be, mayhap, perhaps, per- 
chance, peradventure, possibly, probably, etc. 

II. Adverbs of Time generally answer to the question, When? 
How long ? How often ? or How soon ? 

The principal adverbs of time are already, always, daily, ever, 
forthwith, hourly, immediately, lately, now, never, often, seldom, since, 
then, till, until, weekly, yesterday, yet, etc. ; also, once, twice, and 
thrice. 

III. Adverbs of Place generally answer to the question, Where? 
Whereabouts? Whence? or Whither? 

The principal adverbs of place are anywhere, downward, else- 
where, hence, here, hither, nowhere, off, out, somewhere, thence, there, 
upward, where, wherever, yonder, etc. ; also, first, secondly, thirdly, 
etc., and such words as singly, doubly, triply, etc. 

S* 



90 COMPARISON OF ADVERBS. 

IV. Adverbs of Degree generally answer to the question, How 
much? or How little f An adverb of degree usually qualifies an 
adjective or another adverb. 

The principal adverbs of degree are almost, altogether, as, enough, 
equally, even, much, more, most, little, less, least, only, quite, scarcely, 
so, very, wholly, etc. 

V. Adverbs of Interrogation are used in asking questions. 

The principal adverbs of interrogation are how, when, whence^ 
where, wherefore, whither, why, etc. 

CONJUNCTIVE ADVERBS. 

Conjunctive Adverbs are those which have the nature partly of the 
conjunction, and partly of the adverb. They connect parts of sen- 
tences (clauses), and qualify words in each clause ; as, "He claimed 
the right to defend himself when he was attacked/ 7 

Here when connects the two parts, and qualifies to defend, and was 
attacked. 

The principal conjunctive adverbs are after, as, before, how, 
since, therefore, till, until, when, where, wherefore, while, and why. 



COMPAKISON OF ADYEEBS. 

The Inflection of adverbs, like that of adjectives, is called Com- 
parison. 

A few adverbs are compared like adjectives by suffix- 
ing to the positive er to form the comparative, and est to 
form the superlative; as, pos. soon, comp. sooner, sup. 
soonest. 

Most adverbs which end with the syllable ly admit the 
form of comparison made by placing before the positive 
more or less to form the comparative, and most or least to 
form the superlative; as, pos. easily, comp. more easily, 
sup. most easily ; pos. frequently, comp. less frequently, sup. 
least frequently. 

In these examples the adverbs more and most, less and least, only 
are inflected: these adverbs, therefore, should be parsed as qualify- 
ing the principal adverbs easily and frequently, which are compared, 
but are not inflected. 



EXERCISES. 91 



The following adverbs are compared irregularly: 



Positive. 


Comparative. 


Superlative. 


Badly, 


worse, 


worst. 


Far, 


farther, 


farthest. 


HI, 


worse, 


worst. 


Little, 


less, 


least. 


Much, 


more, 


most. 


Well, 


better, 
REMARKS. 


best. 



Many words are used sometimes as adverbs, and sometimes as 
aojectives; as, "When employment no longer affords pleasure, it 
becomes a burden;" here, no is an adverb, and qualifies the adverb 
longer. "When they lifted up their eyes, they saw no man"; here, 
no is an adjective, and limits the noun man. 

The principal words which are either adverbs or adjectives, accord- 
ing to their use, are better, best, first, late, little, less, least, much, 
more, most, near, no, still, well, etc. These words are adverbs when 
they qualify verbs, adjectives, or other adverbs, and are adjectives 
when they describe or limit nouns or pronouns. 

The adverb there is sometimes used without any definite meaning 
before a verb, or to begin a sentence; as, "There was nothing 
gained by the effort." When a question is asked, it is placed after 
the verb; as, " Breathes there a man with soul so dead?" 

Adverbs are sometimes used independently of other words; as, 
"Well, the worst is past." — "Yes, Christianity must prevail over 
all lands." 

Exercise I. — Tell to which class each of the following adverbs belongs, 
give the reason, and tell whether it can be compared: — 

Now, perhaps, hardly, hither, seldom, thrice, recently, doubly, 
often, somewhere, yea, well, upwards, thence, enough, surely, sooner, 
quite, henceforth, indeed, never, already, secondly, here, possibly, 
undoubtedly, singly, no, farther, verily. 

Exercise II. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentence: — "They 
are here, but will soon leave." 

Model s. — Here. — Are here. — " Here" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a 
word, etc." ; — of place, it answers to the question, Where? — it cannot be com- 
pared; — it qualifies the verb are. 

Soon. — Will leave soon. — " Soon" is an adverb, "An Adverb is a word, etc"; 



92 PEEPOSITIONS. 

— of time, it answers to the question, When? — it can be compared (pos. soon, 
comp. sooner, sup. soonest); — in the positive degree; — it qualifies the verb 
will leave. 

"Act promptly when necessity requires it." 

When. — Act when requires (when). — " When" is a conjunctive adverb, "A 
Conjunctive Adverb is one which connects the words which it qualifies" ; — it 
cannot be compared ; — it connects and qualifies the verbs act and requires. 

Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

The deep river flowed noiselessly. How brightly shines the morning 
sun. He rose early and retired late. His friend went to New York and 
thence sailed to London. Washington was unanimously elected. Still one 
was wanting. The still night was bitterly cold. Come when you shall 
have done your task. Think deliberately and then act promptly. There 
are few who fail when they apply themselves diligently. There wanders 
one whom better days saw better clad. A little mind may often dwell in 
a great body. Well, death must come to us all. Yes, he confessed his fault. 

Vane said no more than this : — " The cause is bad which can not bear 
the words of a dying man," and then expired. 

Exercise III. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
and verbs, in the preceding sentences. 



PREPOSITIONS. 



A Preposition is a word placed before a noun or a 
pronoun to show its relation to some preceding word; 
as, " He traveled from New York to New Orleans." 

In this sentence, from shows the relation between New York and 
the action expressed by the verb traveled; and to shows the relation 
between New Orleans and the action expressed by the verb traveled. 

The noun or the pronoun, which follows the preposition, is called 
the object of the relation denoted by the preposition, and is always 
in the objective case. 

A preposition is also followed by a participle, a verb in the infini- 
tive mode, or a part of a sentence (phrase). 



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 93 



CLASSES OF PREPOSITIONS. 

Prepositions are divided into three classes; Simple, 
Compound, and Complex. 

The Simple Prepositions are nineteen, namely : — at, after, 
by, down, for, from, in, of, on, over, past, round, since, 
through, till, to, under, up, with. 

Compound Prepositions are usually formed by prefixing a or be to 
some noun, adjective, adverb, or preposition; by uniting two pre- 
positions ; or by uniting a preposition and an adverb. 

In compound words a prefixed is a contraction of at, and has the 
meaning of at, in, on, to, etc.; and be was formerly by. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefixing a are abaft, 
aboard, about, above, across, against, along, amid, amidst, among, 
amongst, around, athwart. 

The compound prepositions formed by prefixing be are before, 
behind, below, beneath, beside, besides, between, betwixt, beyond. 

The compound prepositions formed by uniting two prepositions, 
or a preposition and an adverb, are into, throughout, toward, towards, 
underneath, until, unto, upon, within, without. 

Complex Prepositions are composed of two or more prepositions, or 
of a preposition and some other part of speech, which together 
express one relation; as, "The spring flowed from between the 
rocks." Here, from betioeen is a complex preposition, and shows the 
relation between rocks and flowed. 

As to, as for, from before, from, betioeen, from over, over against, 
out of, round about, and a few similar expressions, may be regarded 
as complex prepositions; but according to, contrary to, in respect of 
instead of, etc., should not be classed as such, since in these ex- 
pressions the words may be parsed separately. 

REMARKS. 

The verbs except and save (imperative), and the participles bating, 
concerning, during, excepting, regarding, respecting, and touching, are 
parsed as prepositions, when they show the relation between a noun 
or a pronoun, and some preceding word; also notwithstanding, 
which is compounded of an adverb and a participle. 

A few other words, besides those already given, may sometimes 



94 EXERCISES. 

be parsed as prepositions: such as but, despite, ere, versus, via, 
worth, etc. 

Some words which are generally prepositions become other parts 
of speech when not followed by an object; as, after, before, by, on, 
since, till, up, until, etc., are sometimes adverbs; and but, for, since, 
then, therefore, etc., are sometimes conjunctions. 

Exercise I. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 
1. — " The tree is shaken by the wind/' 

Model. — By. — Is shaken by wind. — "By" is a preposition, "A Preposition 
is a word, etc." ; — it is placed before the noun wind to show its relation to 
the verb is shaken. 

2. — "A sound of falling water issued from within the cavern." 

From within. — Issued from within cavern. — " From within" is a complex 
preposition, "A Complex Preposition is one composed of two or more preposi- 
tions not forming a single word, which together express one relation ;" — it is 
placed before the noun cavern to show its relation to the verb issued. 

3. — " Without industry, we can not succeed." 

Without. — Can succeed without industry. — "Without" is a compound pre- 
position, "A Compound Preposition is one usually formed, etc."; — it is placed 
before the noun industry to show its relation to the verb can succeed. 

Parse all the prepositions in the following sentences : — 

Flowers bloom in summer. Wreaths of smoke ascend through the trees. 
Caesar paused upon the brink of the Eubicon. Many are courageous from 
a dread of shame. We cannot love our country with too pure an affection. 
Better is a little with righteousness than great revenues without right. One 
man, eminent above the others for strength, was chosen to lead them. The 
influence of human actions reaches beyond the grave. 

We sat upon a mossy bank beneath an aged pine, among whose branches 
the south wind made pleasant music, while below us, at a little distance, the 
waters of a tiny brook sang merrily as they danced swiftly down the slope, 
soon to be lost in the flood of the mighty river. Help from without one's 
self is often enfeebling in its effects, but help from within invariably invig- 
orates. 

Exercise II. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
verbs, and adverbs, in the preceding sentences. 

Exercise III. — Compose sentences containing the different kinds of 
prepositions. 



CONJUNCTIONS — CLASSES OF CONJUNCTIONS. 95 

I 



CONJUNCTIONS. 



A Conjunction is a word used to connect the words, the 
parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between which it is 
placed; as, "He is patient and happy, because he is a 
Christian." 

In this example, and connects the words patient and happy, while 
because connects the parts of the sentence (clauses), Re is patient 
and happy, and, lie is a Christian. 

Though relative pronouns connect the nouns or the pronouns to 
which they relate with subsequent parts of sentences, yet they must 
never be parsed as conjunctions ; some grammarians, however, call 
them conjunctive pronouns. 

Other parts of speech, such as pronominal adjectives, verbs, 
adverbs, and prepositions, when used simply as connectives, should 
be parsed as conjunctions. 

GLASSES OP OONJUITOTIOffS. 
Conjunctions may be divided into two general classes ; 
Copulative and Disjunctive. 

A Copulative Conjunction is one which denotes an addition, a conse- 
quence, a purpose, a reason, or a supposition. 

The copulative conjunctions are also, and, as, because, both, even, 
for, if, seeing, since, so, that, then, and therefore. 

A Disjunctive Conjunction is one which denotes a choice, a compari- 
son, a separation, or a restriction. 

The disjunctive conjunctions are although, but, either, else, except, 
lest, neither, nevertheless, nor, notwithstanding, or, provided, than, 
though, unless, yet, whereas, and whether. 

Certain conjunctions belonging to the foregoing classes are used 
in pairs, and are called Correlative Conjunctions, because the one 
calls for the other and relates to it, and together they connect the 
same words or sentences. 



96 EXERCISES. 

The correlative conjunctions are as^-so, although — yet, both — 
and, either — or, if — then, neither -i- nor, whether — or, and though — 
yet. 

The former in each of these pairs may be called the correlative 
of the latter, and together they eonnect the same parts, etc. 

Sometimes two or more words not united are taken together and 
form what is called a Complex Conjunction. 

The principal complex conjunctions are as if, as well as, but that 
forasmuch as, except that, even though, inasmuch as, seeing that, etc. 

Exercise I. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentence: — 
" Though truth and error each exerts great influence, yet truth must prevail, 
inasmuch as it is the greater power." 

Models. — And. — Truth and error. — "And" is a conjunction, "A Con- 
junction is a word, etc."; — conjunctive, because it denotes, etc.; — it connects 
the two nouns truth and error between which it is placed. 

Though. — Though truth and error each exerts great injluence, (yet) truth 
must prevail. — "Though" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction is, etc."; — it is 
the correlative of yet, and with yet connects the two sentences above given. 

Yet. — (Though) truth and error each exerts great injluence, yet truth must 
prevail. — "Yet" is a conjunction, "A Conjunction, etc." ; — it is the correlative 
of though, and with though connects the two sentences between which it is 
placed. 

Inasmuch as. — Truth must prevail, inasmuch as it is the greater power. — 
"Inasmuch as" is a complex conjunction, "A Complex Conjunction is, etc."; 
— it connects the two sentences, Truth must prevail, and it is the greater power t 
between which it is placed. 

Parse all the conjunctions in the following sentences : — 

Ligbt and heat proceed from the sun. If we cannot remove pain, we may 
at least alleviate it. Both men went to sea, but only one returned. The 
prisoner at the bar both planned and executed the deed, as I will prove. 
The unhappy man acknowledged his weakness, yet persisted in the habit. 

I will not argue with you; for, though I can convince your judgment, I 
cannot convert your heart. Neither threat nor punishment moved him from 
his purpose. The principal nobles were delivered up as hostages and were 
thrown into prison, although honorable treatment had been promised to 
them. The ancient philosophers disputed whether the world was made by 
chance or by a divine mind. 

Exercise II. — Parse also the articles, nouns, pronouns, adjectives, 
verbs, adverbs, and prepositions, in the foregoing sentences. 



INTEKJECTIONS — CLASSES OF INTERJECTIONS. 97 

INTERJECTIONS. 



An Interjection is a word used in exclamation, to 
express some emotion of the mind; as, Ha! pshaw! 
alas! halloo! 

CLASSES OP IffTEBJEOTIONS. . 

The following are the principal classes of interjections: — 

1. — Those expressive of joy or exultation; as, ah, aha, hey, hurrah, 
huzza; « 

2. — Of sorrow; as, ah, alas, oh; 

3. — Of surprise or wonder; as, ha, indeed, what; 

4. — Of contempt or disgust ; as, bah, faugh, fie, foh, humph, pah, 
pish, pshaw, tush, tut ; 

5. — Of attention or calling aloud; as, ahoy, behold, halloo, hark, 
ho, lo, look, see, soho, whoa; 

6. — Of silence; as, hist, hush, mum, whist; 

7. — Of addressing, saluting, or taking leave; as, adieu, farewell, 
hail, good-by, good-day, ; 

8. — Of laughter; as, ha-ha, he-he, te-he ; 

9. — Of interrogation ; as, eh, hey. 

is always a capital, and is used before the name of a person 
or thing addressed. 

Some words used as interjections may be parsed as other parts 
of speech by supplying the words evidently omitted; thus, horrible! 
means, it is horrible ; see ! means, see thou or you. 

Exeecise I. — Parse the interjection in the following sentence: — "Hur- 
rah ! the day is gained." 

Mode l. — Hurrah. — (It has no grammatical connection). — " Hurrah" is 
an interjection, a An Interjection is a word, etc."; — it is expressive of 
exultation. 

Parse the interjections in the following sentences : — 

king, live forever ! Oh ! what a fall was there, my countrymen ! Few, 



98 WOEDS USED AS DIFFEEENT PAETS OF SPEECH. 

alas ! survived to tell the tale. What ! feed a child's hody and starve its 
goul ! Well, good-by, I hope to see you again. Alas ! by some degree of 
woe we every bliss must gain. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns, pronouns, articles, adjectives, verbs, 
adverbs, prepositions, and conjunctions in the preceding sentences. 

Exercise III. — Compose sentences, each of which shall contain all the 
parts of speech. 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 



It has already been shown that the same word may belong to 
different parts of speech, according to its different uses. 

The following are the most important words which vary in their 
use: — 

As is (1) a Conjunction simply, when it means since, because; 
"As he was ambitious, I slew him." 
(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes time, degree, or manner; 
as, " Do as I do." — " He spoke as we entered." 
Before is (1) an Adverb, when it denotes time simply j as, "The 
Indians never saw a ship before." 
( 2 ) — a Preposition, when followed by a noun or a pronoun 
in the objective case; as, "The world was before him." 
So also are after, ere, till, until. 
Both is (1) a Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or represents a 
noun; as, "Both criminals were condemned, and both 
were hung." 
(2) — a Conjunction, when it aids in connecting words or 
sentences ; as, " James both reads and writes well." 
So also are either and neither. 
But is ( 1 ) a Preposition, when it means except; as, "All remained 
but him." 
(2) — an Adverb, when it means only; as, "He was but 

one among the many who were slain." 
(3) — a Conjunction, when it connects words or sentences; 
as, "I go, but I will return." 



WORDS USED AS DIFFERENT PARTS OF SPEECH. 99 

i 
For is ( 1 ) a Conjunction, when it connects words or sentences, 

and is used in giving a reason; as, "They will never 

succeed, for they are inattentive." 

(2 ) — a Preposition, when it is followed by a noun or a pro- 
noun iivthe objective case: as, "Prizes were awarded 
for good conduct." 
So also is notwithstanding. 
Since is ( 1 ) a Preposition, when followed by a noun in the objective 
case denoting a portion of time, or a past event; as, 
"No greater event has happened since the Revolution." 

(2) — a Conjunction, when it denotes a reason; as, "The 
boy must obey, since his father commands." 

(3) — an Adverb simply, or a conjunctive adverb, when it 
denotes time; as, "I have not seen him since." — "Two 
years have passed since it happened." 
That is ( 1 ) a Relative Pronoun, when who, whom, or which may be 
substituted for it; as, "Solomon was the wisest man 
that ever lived." — "All that heard him were as- 
tonished." 

(2) — a Pronominal Adjective, when it limits or represents 
a noun; as, "Thai event caused joy in all hearts." — 
" This word may be used for that." 

(3) — a Conjunction, when it is used to connect sentences; 
as, " Live well, that you die well/' 
Then is (1) a Conjunction, when it means in that case, or in con- 
sequence; as, "If this is justice, then I want none 
of it." 

(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes time; as, "Alfred was 
then king." 
What is ( 1 ) a Relative Pronoun, when thing which or things which 
may be substituted for it; as, " What he sought, he 
obtained." 

( 2 ) — an Interrogative Pronoun, when it is used to ask a 
question ; as, " WJiat caused the accident?" 

( 3 ) — a Pronominal Adjective simply; when it limits a noun ; 
as, " What fame Cgesar acquired." 

(4) — a Pronominal Adjective and Relative Pronoun at the 
same time, when it limits a noun, and when that which 
or those which may be substituted for it; as, "What 
vessels survived the storm were captured." 

(5) — an Adverb, when it means partly; as, ''What by lire, 



100 GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING^. 

and what by sword, the whole country was laid 
waste." 

( 6 ) — an Interjection, when used as an exclamation express- 
ing surprise; as, "What! did he commit that crime?" 
While is (1) a Noun, when it denotes space of time; as, "For a 
while we thought him innocent." 

(2) — an Adverb, when it denotes during the time that; as, 
"I will work while you rest." 

(3) — a Verb, when it means to spend or pass; as, "He 
travelled merely to while away the time." 
Yet is (1 ) — an Adverb, when it means in addition, thus far, at the 
present time; as, " He adduced yet one more argument 
to prove his point." 

( 2 ) — a Conjunction, when it means notwithstanding, never- 
theless ; as, " Though the land has become a wilderness, 
yet industry may reclaim it." 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN PARSING. 

The parsing of the following sentences and extracts requires the 
use of all the preceding models : — 

Charles Martel conquered the Saracens. Men's minds are swayed by 
various passions. Time flies. The eagle seized the child in his talons 
and flew away. "When did you come? When the dykes were broken, the 
water overflowed the country for many miles. Adieu, I will see you soon 
again. 

Improve the moments while they pass. I do not think it worth while to 
continue the useless search. "While he lived his power stood firm: few 
indeed loved his government; but those who hated it most, hated it less 
than they feared it. Thus they whiled away many hours beside the brook, 
until the distant thunder warned them to retrace their steps. 

The sun sets in a cloud. The leaves are dyed with the gorgeous tints 
of autumn. The king sat on his throne. He died by the assassin's blow. 
The ship lay motionless on the unruffled waters. Winter set in early, and 
the ground was frozen before Mary could set out her hyacinths along the 
garden borders. Where have you laid my pencil? It lay just now on the 
table. Then you must confess that you lied when you told that tale. I 
have lain awake the whole night. 

Unless thou make haste, the opportunity will soon be lost. If reason were 
taken away, where were man's superiority ? Happiness is found solely 
neither with the rich nor with the poor. I will speak daggers to her, but 



GENERAL EXERCISES IX PARSING. 101 

use none. Whom did you see? Either condition is better than anxious 
suspense. Whose books are these? Neither fulfilled the expectations of his 
friends. Ye are my friends, if ye do whatsoever I command you. We will 
part in peace, since we must part. 

What joy filled all hearts when the news of the victory was announced! 
Man has earned his bread by the sweat of his brow since the Fall. After 
the wind had changed, a fleet of forty sail came into port. The army was 
compelled either to retreat or to surrender. Two men-of-war were wrecked 
near Cape Hatteras. He misapplied what little reason he had. It shall be 
declared to-morrow which pupil has obtained the prize. Both ladies were 
young, and one was beautiful. What is moving on yonder summit? What 
by genius, and what by study, Newton's mind sounded the profoundest 
depths of wisdom. 

Whatever property he had at first, I know that now all is squandered. 
Into the sheet of water reflecting the flushed sky in the foreground of the 
living picture, a knot of urchins were casting stones, and watching the ex- 
panding of the rippling circles. 

We all have two educations, one of which we receive from others ; and the 
other, and the more valuable, that which we give to ourselves. It is this latter 
which fixes our grade in society, and eventually our actual condition in this 
life, and the color of our fate hereafter. All the professors in the world can 
not make us wise or good men without our own co-operation; and if such we 
are determined to be, the want of them will not prevail. 

That government would be thought hard which should tax its people one- 
tenth part of their time to be employed in its service: but idleness taxes 
many of us much more, if we reckon all that is spent in absolute sloth, or m 
doing nothing, with that which is spent in idle employments, or in amuse- 
ments which amount to nothing. Sloth, by bringing on diseases, absolutely 
shortens life. Sloth, like rust, eonsumes faster than labor wears, while the 
key often used is always bright. 

I see before me the gladiator lie : 

He leans upon his hand: his manly brow 

Consents to death, but conquers agony, 

And his drooped head sinks gradually low : 

And through his side the last drops, ebbing slow 

From the red gash, fall heavy, one by one, 

Like the first of a thunder-shower; and now 

The arena swims around him; he is gone, 
Ere ceased the inhuman shout which hailed the wretch who won. 
9* 



Part Third. 

SYNTAX. 



Syntax treats of sentences, and teaches how to con- 
struct them from words. 

A Sentence is two or more words (one of which must 
be a finite verb) so combined as to make complete sense; 
as, " Water'flows." — "Experience gives wisdom." 

The complete sense contained in a sentence is called 
a Proposition, and every sentence is said to contain a pro- 
position. 

The name sentence is applied to all the words taken in combina- 
tion; proposition, to the thought which they express; therefore, 
"Water flows/' is both a sentence and a proposition. 

The expression of thought in successive sentences is termed 
Discourse. 

A Phrase is two or more words combined, forming one 
expression but not making complete sense; as, To seek its 
level; in general; to a great degree. 



CLASSES OP SENTENCES ACCOKDING TO USE. 

Sentences may be divided, according to the manner in 
which they are used, into Declarative, Interrogative, Im- 
perative, and Exclamatory. 

A Declarative Sentence is one which is used to affirm 
or to deny; as, " The sun shines." — "Dishonesty will not 
prosper." 
102 



CLASSES OF SENTEIJCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 103 

Declarative sentences are far more numerous in discourse than 
those belonging to the other classes; they are converted into sen- 
tences of the other classes by the manner of their use. 

An Interrogative Sentence is one which is used to ask a 
question ; as, " Does the sun shine?" 

An Imperative Sentence is one which is used to express 
a command, an entreaty, or a permission, by means of a 
verb in the imperative mode; as, " Let the sun shine." — 
" Be persuaded." 

An Exclamatory Sentence is one which is used in ex- 
clamation, or to express strong emotion; as, "How the 
sun shines !" — " Alas, we are lost !" 

Exercise. — Mention to which class each of the following sentences 
belongs, and give the reason : — 

Model 1. — "The sun gives light." — "This is a declarative sentence, 
because it is one which is used to affirm something. 

2. — " Obey your parents." — This is an imperative sentence, because it is 
one which is used to express a command by means of a verb in the im- 
perative mode. 

The winds blow. The stars are shining. Truth lies in a well. What is 
truth? Control your passions. Great offices need great men. Oh! how 
thoughtless I am ! Who conquered Gaul ? Caesar conquered Gaul. Know 
thyself. May you be happy. What shadows we pursue ! Gratitude is a 
noble emotion. Bring me the captive now. Oh ! what a fall was there, my 
countrymen ! The buds will expand into leaves. If God be with us, who 
can be against us ? Between virtue and vice there can be no middle path. 
If thine enemy hunger, feed him. In what year did Burgoyne surrender ? 
for a lodge in some vast wilderness ! Faint hearts make feeble hands. 



CLASSES OP SENTENCES ACCORDING TO POEM. 

Sentences are divided according to their form into 
Simple, Complex, and Compound. 

A Simple Sentence is one which contains a single pro- 
position; as, "I will go." 



104 CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FOEM. 

A Complex Sentence is one which contains a proposition 
qualified by one or more other propositions ; as, "He 
said thai he would go." — " I will go, if you stay." — " I 
will go when you return." — " He who is diligent shall be 
rewarded." 

Clauses. — The propositions in complex sentences are 
called Clauses. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "It is well known that idleness 
Leads to crime/' the clauses are It is well known, and that idleness 
leads to crime. 

Example 2. — In the sentence, "When we go forth in the morning, 
we lay a moulding hand upon our destiny/' the clauses are When 
we go forth in the morning, and we lay a moulding hand upon our 
destiny. 

Clauses may be divided into two classes; Independent 
(or Principal), and Dependent (or Qualifying). 

An Independent Clause is one which would contain com- 
plete sense if used alone. 

In the first example, It is well known, is the independent or 
principal clause; and in the second example, We lay a moulding 
hand upon our destiny, is the independent or principal clause. 

A Dependant Clause is one which depends upon another 
clause and qualifies its meaning. 

In the first example, That idleness leads to crime, is the dependent 
clause ; and in the second, When we go forth in the morning, is the 
dependent or qualifying clause. 

In some complex sentences each of the propositions qualifies the 
other, and neither is strictly independent; as, "The less wit a man 
has, tne less he knows his need of it." 

Qualifying clauses may themselves be qualified by other clauses; 
as, "I will go with you, if you remain until I return." 

A Compound Sentence is one which contains two or more 
sentences, simple or complex; as, "TJie trees are shaken 
by the wind, and the leaves strew the ground." — u I will go> 
but you must stay until I return." 



CLASSES OF SENTENCES ACCORDING TO FORM. 105 

Members. — The simple or the complex sentences con- 
tained in a compound sentence are called Members. 

Example. — In the compound sentence, "Let us work diligently, 
and, if Providence smile, success will crown our efforts," the mem- 
bers are the simple sentence, Let us work diligently, and the com- 
plex sentence, if Providence smile, success will crown our efforts. 

Members may be named according to their position in the sen- 
tence, as first (or leading) member, second member, etc. 

Extended members may be subdivided into secondary members. 

The terms clause and member must not be misapplied. Clauses 
belong to complex sentences; members, to compound; but as com- 
pound sentences may contain complex sentences, the former may 
also, secondarily, contain clauses. 

The connection of Clauses and Members. — The 
clauses of complex sentences are usually connected by 
relative pronouns, by conjunctive adverbs, or by conjunctions 
denoting cause, comparison, consequence, purpose, restriction, 
or supposition. 

The members of a compound sentence are usually con- 
nected by conjunctions denoting addition, separation, or 
choice. 

Sometimes the conjunctions are not mentioned; as, "I wish he 
would come," for "I wish that he would come." — " Time is golden, 
seize the present moment." 

Sometimes the qualifying clause is used without any connecting 
word; as, " I will come, whatever happen." 

Exercise. — Classify the following sentences; mention the propositions, 
clauses, members, and connectives, and state the reasons : — 

Model 1. — "Books afford instruction." — This is a sentence, "A Sentence 
is two or more words, etc."; — declarative, because it affirms something; — 
simple, because it contains a single proposition. 

2. — "Did you see the gentleman who called yesterday?" — This is a sen- 
tence, "A Sentence is two or more words, etc." ; — interrogative, because it is 
used to ask a question ; — complex, because it contains a proposition qualified 
by another proposition. The independent or principal proposition is, Did 
you see the gentleman; the dependent or qualifying proposition is, who called 
yesterday; — these clauses are connected by the relative who. 



106 EXERCISES. 

3. — "He replied, that he hastened to deliver the message as soon as ho 
received it." — This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, beeause 
it is used, etc.; — complex, because it contains a proposition which introduces 
another proposition which is itself qualified b3 r a third. 

The independent clause or principal proposition is, He replied; the first 
dependent clause or proposition is, that he hastened to deliver the message ; 
this proposition is qualified by a third, namely, as soon as he received it. The 
first proposition and the second are connected by the conjunction that, the 
second and the third by the complex adverb as soon as. 

4. — "The sun sets and the mountains are shaded." — This is a sentence, 
"A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because, etc.; — compound, because it con- 
tains two simple sentences, The sun sets, and the mountains are shaded, — which 
are members, not clauses, and are connected by the conjunction and. 

Man proposes, but God disposes. Falsehood aids no honest cause. Take 
heed to thy thoughts. The wise man is happy when he has gained his own 
approbation. We should learn to economize our time. Let us be temperate 
in all things. Righteousness exalteth a nation, but sin is a reproach to any 
people. Every wrong opinion tends to do harm in this world. Laziness 
grows on people ; it begins in cobwebs, and ends in iron chains. Adversity is 
the mint in which God stamps upon us his image and his superscription. 

Soft, purple clouds come sailing over the sky, and through their vapory 
folds the winking stars shine, white as silver. If we study history, we 
should endeavor to obtain books of the best authority. As soon as it touched 
the water, it sunk. The more we have, the more we want. Who lives vir- 
tuously, dies happy. Talk to the point, and stop when you have reached 
it. The more you think, the better will you express your thoughts. What- 
ever be the consequences, I will abide by them. Besides the falsehoods 
which people designedly speak, there is a kind which springs from negligence, 
hastiness, or a warm imagination. 

All human weal and woe, learn thou to make thine own. Acquaint thy- 
Belf with God, if thou wouldst taste his works. Columbus was the first Eu- 
ropean who set his foot in the new world which he had discovered. There is 
a pleasure in the pathless woods. I sat down on a little hill within sight 
of my home, but I did not venture to approach it, for I felt remorse as I 
thought of the recklessness with which I had squandered my earnings. 

Now came still evening on, and twilight gray 
Had in her sober livery all things clad. 

He who ascends to mountain tops, shall find 

The loftiest peaks most wrapped in clouds and snow. 



DIVISIONS OF SYNTAX. 107 

DIVISIONS OP SYNTAX. 

Syntax may be considered under two divisions ; Analy- 
sis and Synthesis. 

Analysis means a taking apart; Synthesis, a putting together. 

Analysis, in Grammar, is the separation of sentences 
into the parts which compose them. 

Synthesis is the construction or formation of sentences 
from words. 

By the former process, the parts of a sentence, their connections 
and their various qualifications, are shown. 

By the latter process, the principles relating to the combination 
of the different classes of words, and the manner of applying these 
principles in the formation of sentences, are shown. 

These two processes should be carried on together in order to 
understand fully the nature of sentences. 

Ellipsis. — In sentences there often occurs an omission 
of one or more words,' phrases, or clauses, which are 
necessary to complete the sense and construction; as, 
" James's conduct is more praiseworthy than Henry's 
(conduct)." Such an omission is called Ellipsis. 

Pleonasm. — Sometimes more words than are abso- 
lutely necessary are used to express an idea ; as, " The truth, 
w T hat is UP' — "He sees with his eyes, and hears with his 
ears." Such a use is called Pleonasm. 



ANALYSIS. 



THE PAETS OF SENTENCES. 
The Parts of Sentences, as contained in discourse, are, 
the Essential, the Secondary (or Qualifying), the Connect- 
ing, and the Independent. 



108 ANALYSIS. 

Essential Parts. — The Essential Parts are those 
without which a sentence cannot be formed. 

Every sentence contains two essential parts; the Subject 
and the Predicate. 

The Subject is that of which something is said or as- 
serted ; as, " Water flows." 

The Predicate is that which is said or asserted of the 
subject; as " Water flows." 

A subject and a predicate combined form a proposition 
or sentence. 

The term proposition applies to simple sentences, the clauses of 
complex, and the members of compound sentences. 

Example 1. — In the sentence, "Water flows," water is that con- 
cerning which flows is asserted ; and flows is that which is asserted 
of water. 

Water is, therefore, the subject, and flows, the predicate; and the 
two parts combined make the sentence or proposition, namely, 
"Water flows." 

Example 2. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi 
River flow into the Gulf of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi 
Miner is that of which flow into the Gulf of Mexico is asserted; and 
flow into the Gulf of Mexico is that which is asserted of the waters 
of the Mississippi River. 

TJie waters of the Mississippi River is, therefore, the subject, 
and flow into the Gulf of Mexico is the predicate; the two parts 
combined make the sentence or proposition, namely, "The waters 
of the Mississippi River flow into the Gulf of Mexico." 

Example S. — In the sentence, "The waters of the Mississippi 
River, and the streams of Texas, flow southward, and empty into 
the Gulf of Mexico," The waters of the Mississippi River, and the 
streams of Texas, is that of which flow southward, and empty into 
the Gulf of Mexico, is asserted, and flow southward, and empty into 
the Gulf of Mexico, is that which is asserted of the waters of the 
Mississippi River, and the streams of Texas. 

The icaters of the Mississippi River, and the streams of Texas is, 
therefore, the subject, and flow southward, and empty into the 
Gulf of Mexico, the predicate; the two parts combined make the 
sentence or proposition, namely, "The waters of the Mississippi 



DISTINCTIONS OF S%BJECT AND PEEDICATE. 109 

River, and the streams of Texas, flow southward, and empty into 
the Gulf of Mexico." 

DISTINCTIONS OP SUBJECT AND PEEDICATE. 

The subject may be distinguished as Simple, Complex, 
or Compound. 

The predicate also may be distinguished as Simple, 
Complex, or Compound. 

These distinctions can be perceived in the three examples given 
on the preceding page. 

SIMPLE SUBJECT. 

The Simple Subject is a noun or a pronoun, or some 
word, phrase, or clause, used as a noun; as, "Water 
flows." — "It flows." — " They is a pronoun." — "To deceive 
is shameful." — "That the earth is round, can be proved." 
— " 'Might makes right/ is often quoted." — "Practising 
virtue for virtue's sake is foreign to our nature." 

When clauses are used as subjects, they must, of course, be 
themselves separated into subjects and predicates. 

When the simple subject is a noun, a pronoun, or some word 
used as a noun, it is called the subject-nominative. 

When a phrase or a clause is used as a subject, it may be called 
a snbject-phrase or a subject-clause. 

Many sentences have a simple subject only; as, " Ccesar con- 
quered Gaul." 

SIMPLE PEEDICATE. 

The Simple Predicate is always and simply a finite verb; 
as, " Water flows? — "It might have flowed." 

The simple predicate may be called the predicate-verb. 
Many sentences have a simple predicate only; as, "The spirit 
of true liberty was extinguished." 

COMPLEX SUBJECT. 

The Complex Subject is the simple subject taken with 

all its qualifications. 

10 



110 COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

The qualifications of a word are those words which limit 
or qualify its meaning or use. 

The complex subject includes all that portion which 
precedes the simple predicate, in sense or order of thought; 
as, "The waters of the Mississippi River flow." 

In the example given, the noun waters is the simple subject, and 
the article the, and the phrase, of the Mississippi River, are the 
qualifications of the simple subject: together, these three portions 
constitute the complex subject. 

Eemark. — The order of expression does not always correspond 
with the order of thought, or the natural order. This is especially 
the case in poetry. Thus, in the sentence, " Sweet are the uses of 
adversity," the natural order is, " The uses of adversity are sweet." 
When the parts of sentences, or their qualifications, occur out of 
their natural order, the sentences are said to be inverted. 

COMPLEX PREDICATE. 

The Complex Predicate is the simple predicate taken 
with all its qualifications ; as, "Waters flow into the Gulf 
of Mexico" 

The complex predicate includes all that portion of the 
sentence which succeeds the subject in the order of 
thought. 

In the example, the finite verb flow is the simple predicate, and 
the phrase into the Gulf of Mexico is its qualification : these two 
portions constitute the complex predicate. 

COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PREDICATE. 

A Compound Subject is one which consists of two or 
more simple or complex subjects, united by one or more 
conjunctions; as, "Waters and streams flow." 

A Compound Predicate is one which consists of two or 
more simple or complex predicates, united by one or more 
conjunctions; as, "Waters flow and empty." 

A simple sentence or single proposition often contains a compound 



COMPOUND SUBJECT AND COMPOUND PEEDICATE. Ill 

subject combined with a compound predicate. Such a sentence 
may be changed into a compound sentence by supplying the proper 
subject for each predicate-verb, but this must not be done, unless 
the obscurity of the passage demand it. If this is done, the simple 
is resolved into a compound sentence. 

In the sentence, " The waters of the Mississippi River, and the 
streams of Texas, flow southward, and empty into the Gulf of 
Mexico," the subject is compound, consisting of two complex 
subjects, namely, The waters of the Mississippi River and the streams 
of Texas, which are united by the conjunction and, combined with 
a compound predicate consisting of the two complex predicates, flow 
southward, and empty into the Gulf of Mexico, which are united by 
the conjunction and. 

Secondary Parts. — The qualifications of the essential 
parts are called the Secondary or Qualifying Parts of a sen- 
tence. These consist of words, phrases, and clauses. 

Connecting- Parts. — Relative pronouns, conjunctions, 
and conjunctive adverbs, are called the Connecting Parts 
of a sentence. 

The relative pronoun is often an essential, a qualifying, and a 
connecting part, at the same time ; as, " He who runs, may read." 

Who is here a subject, and at the same time qualifies the pronoun 
he, and connects it with runs. In the sentence, "The man whose 
horse was stolen, has discovered the thief," whose is both a qualify- 
ing or secondary, and a connecting part. 

Exercise on Subjects and Predicates, Simple and 
Complex. — Classify and analyze the following sentences, mentioning the 
simple and the complex subjects, and the simple and the complex predicates : 
— according to the models : — 

Model 1. — " Every man must die." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc." ; — declarative, because it is used, 
etc.; — simple, because it contains, etc. 

The complex subject is Every man. The simple subject, or subject-nomi- 
native, is man. The predicate is must die, simple only, not complex, because 
it has no qualifications. 

2. — " The love of money is the root of all evil." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because it is used, 
etc. ; — simple, because it contains, etc. 



112 EXEECISE ON SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES, ETC. 

The simple subject or subject-nominative is love; tbe predicate-verb is 
is. The complex subject is The love of money ; — the complex predicate is is 
the root of all evil. 

3. — "A few storm-scarred oaks alone remained as he had seen them in 
his boyhood." 

This is a sentence, "A Sentence is, etc."; — declarative, because it is used, 
etc. ; — complex, because it contains, etc. 

The independent or principal proposition is, A few storm- scarred oak3 alone 
remained; the dependent or qualifying proposition is, as he had seen them in 
his boyhood. The clauses are connected by the conjunctive adverb as. The 
complex subject of the principal proposition is A few storm-scarred oaks ; 
the complex predicate, alone remained. The simple subject or subject-nomi- 
native is oaks ; the simple predicate or predicate-verb is remained. 

In the dependent proposition there is no complex subject; the simple 
subject is the personal pronoun he; the complex predicate is had seen them in 
his boyhood; the simple predicate or predicate-verb is had seen. 

Ships sail. Birds sing. The bird sings sweetly. The ship sails down 
the stream. Hills rise above hills. The top of the hill is reached. No 
man lives to himself. Great virtues are rare. Nature is full of variety. 
Wooden fences divide the adjoining fields. The strangeness of his conduct 
occasioned much remark. Time rolls on. Such a sight I never saw. Hag- 
gard care gathered about his brow. The deadly tomahawk whirled through 
the air. Those fires were kindled at the altar of liberty. Want of punc- 
tuality is a species of falsehood. Change is stamped on all things. Gently 
the river flowed. 

A high order of intellect is required for the discovery of truth. In a calm 
sea every man is a pilot. Winter reveals what summer conceals. From a 
wild and lonely spot issued a small stream. What a wonderful piece of work 
it is ! To do good forget not. Genius needs industry as much as industry 
needs genius. Gluttony kills more than the sword. While I was waiting 
I passed the time in reading the "Atlantic Monthly," which I had purchased 
at a neighboring book-stand. 

I was hungry, and ye gave me no meat. The farmer raises grain, and the 
merchant sells it. Several years had passed away, and Ralph had almost 
forgotten the circumstance. Twelve years of successful industry made me 
a rich man; and, as soon as I could settle my affairs, I returned to England. 
There are three periods for gathering the leaves of the tea-plant; the first 
commences about the middle of April; the second begins at mid-summer; 
and the last is accomplished during August and September. 

To relieve the poor is a source of joy. To do good was the key-note of his 
life. " Much ooin, much care," is a proverb the truth of which many would 



EXERCISE ON SUBJECTS AND PREDICATES, ETC. 113 

be glad to prove. " Beware the dog," met their eyes as they opened the 
gate. The " No admittance here" was not rigidly enforced ; a few dimes 
soon initiated us into all the mysteries of the engine-room. That pride has 
many a fall, is every proud man's experience. That the whole is greater 
than any of its parts, needs no proof. "Pay as you go/' is a good rule. 
To be virtuous is to be happy. When the celebration will take place, has 
not yet been announced. 

Exercise on Subjects and Predicates, Simple, Com- 
plex, and Compound. 

Model. 3 . — " Days and months come and go." — This is a sentence, declara- 
tive, simple. The subject is compound, consisting of the two simple subjects 
or subject-nominatives, days and months. The predicate is also compound, 
consisting of the two simple predicates or predicate-verbs, come and go. 

2. — " Sensual pleasure weakens and debases the mind." — This is a sentence, 
declarative, simple. The complex subject is Sensual pleasure; the subject- 
nominative is pleasure. The predicate is compound, consisting of the two 
complex predicates, weakens (the mind) and debases the mind. The predicate- 
verbs are weakens and debases. 

Classify and analyze the following sentences according \o the appropriate 
models : — 

Truth and candor possess a powerful charm. The Bible and nature are 
consistent. The tide ebbs and flows. Come and see. Demosthenes and 
Cicero were the greatest orators of antiquity. In Him we live, move, and 
have our being. Pure air and free exercise are indispensable to physical 
development. Flowers bud, bloom, and die. I must sink or swim. They 
fought, bled, and died for freedom. The wisdom of God and His goodness 
are unbounded. Are fleets and armies necessary to a work of love and 
reconciliation ? Virtue and vice are contrary to each other. Only five gal- 
lons of water and twenty pounds of wet bread remained. I leaned my 
cheek upon my hand, and looked upon the landscape. The sweetest melody 
and the most perfect harmony fall powerless upon the ear of one who is deaf. 

Coal, iron, and lime are found in vast quantities. Several important rail- 
roads extend through the state, and add greatly to the facilities of intercourse. 
The Tennessee and the Cumberland River empty into the Ohio. His pity 
and compassion were awakened by the strong appeal for mercy. Whether he 
became drowsy from the excessive cold and was frozen to death in his boat, or 
whether he lost his life in an attempt to escape to the shore over the floating 
masses of ice, could never be ascertained. Such men may triumph in their 
fancied distinctions ; but they will never, as was John Henderson, be followed 
by the child, loved by the ignorant, and yet emulated by the wise. 

10* 



114 INDEPENDENT PAETS. 

" Down rushed the rain 
Impetuous, and continued till the earth 
No more was seen." 

Independent Parts. — Words and phrases which 
neither connect nor qualify, are called Independent Parts. 

The independent parts are, words which are used as the names 
of persons or things addressed or uttered in exclamation, phrases 
containing such words, interjections, and certain adverbs : — "Charles, 
when did you come?" — "My dear friend, I am glad to see you." — 
"Oh! what joy filled his soul!" — "Well, the time has come." 

The words or the phrases also which denote merely subjects of 
thought, which stand apart, or are used parenthetically, are usually 
independent parts; as, "The boy — oh! where was he V — "Truth — 
what is it?" — "To say the least, it was very unexpected." 

The word or the words used in addressing may be 
called the Addressive. 

The addressive, like the subject and the predicate, may 
be distinguished as Simple, Complex, or Compound. 

The Simple Addressive is a noun or a pronoun, or a noun and a 
pronoun taken together ; as, Man ; thou ; thou man. 

The Complex Addressive is the simple addressive qualified; as, 
" Thou man of God." — " Thou who hearest prayer." 

The Compound Addressive is two or more simple or complex ad- 
dressives connected; as, " Thou prophet and thou man of God." 

Exercise on the Independent Parts op Sentences. — 
Analyze the addressives and the other independent parts contained in the fol- 
lowing sentences : — 

Model. — "Wretched man of blood, what hast thou done?" 

This sentence contains an independent part, namely, the phrase Wretched 
man of blond ; — it is independent, because it does not qualify the subject or 
the predicate; — it is a complex addressive, because it contains a simple 
addressive, man, with its qualifications wretched and of blood. 

Gentlemen of the jury, listen to my words. Father, must I stay? There 
is none left. Hurrah, hurrah, the field is won. My kite, how fast and far 
it flew! "Well, if I admit your proposition, what follows? My little fellow, 
can you tell where Mr. Brown lives? Greece, there is magic in the sound! 
A hot day this, gentlemen. No; I will not remind you of these things. 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 115 

" Our country ! Right or wrong, our country !" — is the sentiment always 
correct? 0, disgrace upon manhood! will you falter now? liberty! 
sound once delightful to every Roman ear! hast thou then left us forever? 

Scholars ! jurists ! artists ! philanthropists ! heroes of a Christian age, 
companions of a celestial knighthood, go forth, he brave, loyal, and 
successful. Ah! my friends, what lips these were! 

Bird of the broad and sweeping wing, 
Thy home is high in heaven ! 

Thou happy, happy elf! 
(But stop — first let me kiss away that tear) — 

Thou tiny image of myself! 
(My love, he's poking peas into bis ear) — 

Thou merry, laughing sprite ! 

With spirits feather light, 
Untouch'd by sorrow, and unsoil'd by sin — 
(Good heavens! the child is swallowing a pin!) 



QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE SUBJECT. 

The Simple Subject, when it is a noun, may be qualified 
in the following ways : — 

1. — By an article; as, " The hour has come." 

2. — By an explanatory (appositional) noun or pronoun in the 
nominative case ; as, "Friend William has come." — "John himself 
has come." 

3. — By a noun or a pronoun in the possessive case ; as, "Pleasure's 
hour has come." — "My hour has come." 

4. — By a preposition with its object; as, "Hours of rest have 
come." 

5. — By an adjective; as, "Pleasant hours were spent." — "Every 
man sins." 

6. — By a participle; as, "Hours appointed have begun." 

7. — By a verb in the infinitive mode; as, "Hours to be improved 
have begun." 

8. — By a clause; as, "Men who will work, have come." — "Proofs 
that he was guilty were numerous." 

When the simple subject is a pronoun, it may have all the quali- 
fications of a noun, except that made by a noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive case. 



116 QUALIFICATIONS OF WORDS QUALIFYING, ETC. 

The same subject may have all the preceding qualifications in the 
same sentence. 

Any qualifying word, or two or more words taken as one qualify- 
ing term, may be called an Adjunct. 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the complex subject; (2) the subject noun 
or pronoun; and (3 ) its qualifiers or adjuncts, in each of the following 
sentences : — 

Mode l. — " The ripe apples fall to the ground." 

In this sentence, the complex subject is The ripe apples; the subject 
noun is ajjples; its adjuncts are the article the and the adjective ripe. 

The man himself is present. The voice of nature cries aloud. The yellow 
flakes of gold glistened among the rocks. A gloomy forest of pines ap- 
peared in the distance. The gift of prophecy is no longer bestowed on 
man. Our glorious country has achieved a proud pre-eminence among the 
nations of the earth. Few who heard his words could withhold their sym- 
pathies. Lions, being satisfied, are for the time harmless*. Charles's in- 
dulgent father yielded where he should have refused. They each required 
assistance. He, Washington, is all our own. The secret acts of men are 
known only to the Almighty. An opportunity to leave was allowed to 
every scholar. Children, being praised, become vain. I, James Brown, 
having seen, can truly testify. The suppliant's prayer for mercy was 
unheeded. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF WORDS QUALIFYING THE SIMPLE 
SUBJECT. 

Qualifying words may themselves be qualified ; thus : — 

I. A noun may be qualified in all respects as the subject noun. 

II. An adjective may be qualified; — 

1. — By a preposition with its object; as, "Full of care." 

2. — By an adverb; as, "Very full of care." 

3. — By an infinitive; as, "Heavy to be borne." 

The qualifying adverb may itself be qualified ; — 

1. — By a preposition with its object; as, "Your letter, very full, 
agreeably to promise, of interesting news, has been received." 

2. — By another adverb; as, "Demands not very exorbitant may 
be satisfied." 

III. An infinitive, or a participle, may be qualified ; — 

1. — By an object; as, "Quickness to take offence should be 
avoided." — "A rule directing you shall be given." 



EXERCISES. 117 

2. — By a preposition with its object; as, "The time to act with 
energy has come." — "A man acting with promptness is needed/' 

3. — By an adverb; as, "The time to act promptly has come." — 
" A man acting promptly may gain his aim." 

4. — By an infinitive; as, "The time to begin to improve has 
come." — " Moments requiring to be improved are now here." 



REMARKS. 

An infinitive, or a participle with its adjuncts constituting a 
phrase, may be used as a simple subject. (Page 109.) 

The participle when thus used may be qualified by a possessive ; 
as, "His telling the truth saved his life." 

An infinitive, or a participle, when used as a subject, may be 
qualified by a noun, an adjective, or a participle used independently 
(or abstractly) ; as, " To be a man." — " To be virtuous." — " To live 
never seeing the light of day." — " Being a man" etc. 

It seems necessary to state here, that the infinitive or the participle 
may have, either when qualifying the subject, or when constituting 
a subject, the qualifications of the simple predicate or predicate- 
verb. 

The addressive may be qualified in nearly every respect like the 
subject-nominative. 

So also may the noun or the pronoun in independent parts which 
denote mere subjects of thought, etc. 

Exercise. — Mention (1) the simple subject; (2) its qualifying words; 
(3) the adjuncts of the qualifying words; and (4) the whole or complex 
subject, in each of the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — " The truth of this proposition is evident." 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun truth; its adjuncts are the 
article the and of this proposition ; the pronominal adjective this is the 
qualifying adjunct of the noun proposition. 

The whole or complex subject is, The truth of this proposition. 
2. — " Being placed at the head of animated nature by the gift of reason, 
ought we not to improve this glorious faculty?" 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the pronoun we; this is qualified by 
the participle being placed. Being placed is qualified by the complex 
adjuncts, at the head of animated nature and by the gift of reason: in the 
first adjunct, at the head, the noun head is qualified by the article the, and by 
the adjunct of animated nature, in which the noun nature is qualified by 



118 QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PKEDICATE. 

the adjective animated ; in the second adjunct, by the gift, the noun gift ia 
qualified by the article the, and by the adjunct of reason. 

The whole or complex subject is we, being placed at the head of animated 
nature by the gift of reason. 

3. — "The request to be allowed to attend the opening ceremonies in a 
body was granted." 

In this sentence, the simple subject is the noun request j this is qualified 
by the article the, and by the infinitive to be allowed. To be allowed is 
qualified by the second infinitive to attend ; to attend is qualified by its object 
ceremonies, and by the adjunct in a body; ceremonies is qualified by the arti- 
cle the and by the participial adjective opening, and a qualifies body in the 
adjunct in a body. 

The soft breezes of early summer are rustling the leaves. The strength 
of his mind overcame every calamity. Man, the occupant of the soil, was as 
wild as the savage scene. Thoughtless of beauty, she was beauty's self. The 
order to unfurl the sails was obeyed with alacrity. The practice of embalm- 
ing was common in ancient Egypt. To what holier service can a nation's 
lifetime be devoted ? Alexander, the conqueror of the Persian empire, died 
at Babylon. The preservation of our civil and religious rights demands 
prompt and unwearied action. Conscience, enlightened by the word of God, 
is a faithful monitor. An active daily press, vigilant from party interest, 
watches the progress of society. 

Youth, unadmonished by a guide, will trust to any fair outside. Over- 
head bends the blue and sunny sky. The whole mountain side on the 
western bank of the river above Thebes is one vast city of the dead. A 
friendly Indian, pursuing the chase, met them. Wild-looking men with 
black, snaky locks, and eyes that shone like the torches, were devouring 
their macaroni. In a remote field stood a large tulip-tree, apparently of a 
century's growth. "Was there not true heroism in this boy's conduct? 

Truth, crushed to earth, shall rise again ; 

The eternal years of God are hers ; 
But Error, wounded, writhes in pain, 

And dies among his worshipers. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE SIMPLE PBEDICATE. 

The simple predicate or predicate-verb may be qualified 
in the following ways : — 

1. — By a noun or a pronoun in the nominative case, which means 
the same person or thing as the subject-nominative ; as, "Kings are 



QUALIFICATIONS #0F THE WORDS, ETC. 119 

men." — "I am lie." — -"Napoleon was proclaimed emperor." — "Pom- 
pey retired victor." 

The predicate-verb is thus qualified only when it is an intransitive 
verb, or a transitive verb in the passive voice. 

This qualifier may be called the predicate-nominative. 

This qualifier may be added by means of the conjunction as; as, 
" He acted as mediator." 

2. — By a noun in the objective case; as, " They found gold." 

The predicate-verb is thus qualified only when it is a transitive 
verb, or an intransitive verb used transitively. 

3. — By a preposition with its object; as, " He came to scliool." 

4. — By an adjective describing or limiting the subject; as, "Truth 
is eternal." 

5. — By a participle relating to the subject; as, "He came 
running." 

6. — By an adverb; as, "William came speedily." 

7. — By an infinitive; as, " He came to see." 

8. — By a clause; as, "William discovered that lie was ignorant." 

The same predicate may have all the preceding qualifications in 
the same sentence. 

QUALIFICATIONS OF THE WOKDS WHICH QUALIFY THE 
SIMPLE PREDICATE. 

Words which qualify the simple predicate may them- 
selves be qualified in all the ways in which the same 
parts of speech, occurring in the complex subject are 
qualified. (Pages 116, 117.) 

An infinitive or a participle may receive all the qualifications 
which the predicate-verb can take. 

An infinitive or a participle, with or without qualifications, may 
constitute a predicate-nominative; as, " To see is to believe." 

ExEEClS E. — Mention ( 1 ) the simple predicate ; ( 2 ) its qualifying words ; 
(3) the adjuncts of the qualifying words; and (4) the whole or complex pre- 
dicate, in each of the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — " Falsehood aids no honest cause." 

In this sentence, the simple predicate or predicate-verb is aids. Its qualify- 
ing word is its object cause. The adjectives no and honest are the adjuncts of 
the noun cause. The whole or complex predicate is, aids no honest cattse. 



120 CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 

Model 2. — "The new heirs of time are always seeking to make improve- 
ments in the political and social habitations which they have inherited." 

In this sentence, the simple predicate or predicate-verb is are seeking. Its 
qualifying words are the adverb always, and the infinitive to make, which is 
itself qualified by its object, the noun improvements. Improvements is quali- 
fied by the adjunct in political and social habitations, in which the noun 
habitation* is qualified by the article the, and by the adjectives political and 
social (connected by and), and by the clause which they have inherited. The 
predicate-verb of this clause is have inherited, which is qualified by its object 
which. 

The whole or complex predicate is, are always seeking to make improvements 
in the political and social habitations which they have inherited. 

The thunder of the cannon shook the city. The elm is a noble tree. John 
Adams was the second president of the United States. Beware of covetous- 
ness. The ground produced abundantly. The storm was upon us. "We 
should have courage to do right. How many books did he purchase? True 
happiness always seeks some company. He bade all who were present 
remember his last words. Children who have no home rarely become good 
citizens. The various fruit trees are in their glory and wealth of beauty. 
It is delightful to lean against their trunks and listen to the hum and watch 
the busy motions of the honey-gathering bees. 

Large was his bounty. Westward the course of empire takes its way. 
Without these three things — the prison, the school, and the hearth — social 
order could not be maintained for a twelvemonth. They have left us an 
example already inscribed on the world's memory. No works of art can 
withstand the incessant strokes of time. Man should be ashamed to refuse 
to learn the lessons taught by the spider, the ant, and the bee. It will be 
the duty of the historian and the sage in all ages to let no occasion pass 
of commemorating the virtues of our illustrious Washington. 

CLASSIFICATION OF PHRASES. 

A phrase may be named according to the part of speech 
to which its principal or leading word belongs, or accord- 
ing to the manner in which it qualifies. 

The following are the principal phrases : — 

1. — The Appositional Phrase; as, "Vice, the fruitful source of 
misery, must be shunned." 

2. — The Prepositional Phrase; as, "He was noted for his love 
of science." 



CLASSIFICATION 0% DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 121 

3. — The Adjective Phrase; as, "Faithful to his promise, he came at 
the appointed time." 

4. — The Adverbial Phrase; as, " Far up the mountain side stood 
a little cottage." 

5. — The Infinitive Phrase; as, " The rain descends to water the 
earth." 

When this phrase (or the participial) is used as a subject, it is 
called the Subject-Phrase. 

6. — The Participial Phrase; as, "Being planted in good soil, the 
tree grew rapidly." 

7. — The Absolute Phrase; as, " The wind having died away, the 
sails napped idly against the masts." 

The leading noun or pronoun and the participle in this phrase 
may be qualified, the former as a subject-nominative, the latter as a 
predicate-verb, is qualified. 

This phrase is equivalent to a proposition — usually a dependent 
clause. It is called absolute, because it is absolved or loosened from 
its propositional form and made a phrase. 

8. — The Independent Phrase (p. 114); as, "Olong expected day! 
begin." 

REMARKS. 

The independent phrase qualifies neither subject nor predicate. 
The absolute phrase qualifies the subject and the predicate com- 
bined, or the whole proposition. 

The other phrases may qualify either subject or predicate. 

CLASSIFICATION OF DEPENDENT CLAUSES. 

Dependent clauses may receive special names from their 
position in senteDces, or from the manner in which they 
qualify. 

The following are the most important : — 

1. — The Subject Clause; as, " Who did it, is not known." — "That 
all men are mortal, needs no argument." 

2.— The Predicate Clause; as, "It is certain that truth must 
conquer." 

3. — The Object Clause; as, " The wise man knows that he is igno- 
rant." — " I learned where he lived." 

' 4. — The Relative (or Adjective) Clause; as, "He who runs, may 
read." — " The wisdom which is from above, is first pure." 

11 



122 GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

5. — The Apposition al Clause ; as, "The proverb (that) 'Wealth 
begets want,' is not clear to all." 

6. — The Adverbial Clause; as, "I waited until the hour had ex- 
pired." — " It lay where it fell." 

Adverbial clauses are usually connected to the parts which they 
qualify by conjunctive adverbs. 

When two clauses of a complex sentence mutually qualify, they 
may be called Correlative; as, " The more I struggled, tlie deeper 1 
sank." 

Clauses introduced by the conjunction than may be called Com- 
parative; as, "The loss was greater than he imagined it to he." 

Exercise. — Mention the clauses and p h rases, and what they qualify, in 
the following sentences : — 

Adrian built a wall from ^ea to sea, to restrain the incursions of the Picts 
and Scots. By private gratituao for public worth, this monument is raised. 
Woe to the city where faction reigns, ' The raven croaked as he sat in the 
gloom of the deepening twilight. Regu~dless of their doom, the little vic- 
tims play. Everybody knows that authority is very much founded upon 
opinion. I wonder why he does not come. In ^ncient times the belief was 
that the earth is a flat circle. The time having arrived, the orders were 
carried into effect. As the day dawned, the horrors of their position 
became manifest. The duke gave command that no prisoners should be 
spared. Having lighted his lantern, he left the hut, the dog, by his bark- 
ing, directing the way. Almost at the end of the valley they found an 
humble inn. The chamber where the good man meets his fate is privi- 
leged beyond the common walk of virtuous life. How beautiful are the 
feet of him that bringeth good tidings, that publisheth peace! The fact that 
a robbery had been committed in spite of all precautions dismayed every one. 



GENERAL ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

DIRECTIONS. L— 1.— Read aloud the sentence. 

2. — Mention the class to which it belongs according to use and 
form; 

3. — Its clauses, independent and dependent, if the sentence be 
complex; or its members, leading, second, etc. (and secondary), if 
compound ; 

4. — All the connecting parts. 

II. When it is a simple sentence, — 

1. — Mention the subject, that is, the whole subject, without regard 



MODELS FOK THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 123 

to the distinctions as simple, complex, or compound; and the pre- 
dicate, that is, the whole predicate, etc. 

2. — Mention the distinction of the subject; that is, whether it is 
simple, complex, or compound; and when it is complex, name, first, 
the subject -nominative, then its qualifications, and lastly, the 
qualifications or adjuncts of the qualifying words. 

3. — Name the distinction of the predicate, and proceed in the 
same manner as with the subject, mentioning, first, the predicate- 
verb, etc. 

4. — Mention the independent parts, the principal or leading 
words (especially the addressive), the qualifications, and the con- 
nectives. 

When the subject or the predicate is compound, or when both are 
compound, separate it or them into the simple or the complex, and 
with each proceed as before directed. 

III. When the sentence is complex, analyze, first, the inde- 
pendent clause, and then the dependent clause or clauses. 

IV. When the sentence is compound, begin with the leading 
member, and proceed as in Direction II. 

V. When the words composing simple sentences, clauses, or 
members, are inverted, it is better, before analyzing, to arrange 
the words in their natural order. 

VI. Repeat, at least once during a recitation, the definition of 
every term used in analyzing, or give a reason for the use of the 
term. 

MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

SIMPLE SENTENCES. 1.— "Honesty produces confidence." 

This is a sentence; " A Sentence is, etc."; declarative, because it is used, 
etc.; simple, because it contains, etc. Honesty is the subject, because it is 
that of which, etc.; produces confidence is the predicate, because it is that 
which is asserted, etc. 

The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative. 

The predicate is complex; produces is the predicate- verb, and is qualified 
by its object — confidence. 

2. — " To steal is base." 

This is a sentence, declarative, simple. To steal is the subject, and is base 
is the predicate. 

The subject is simple, and to steal, a verb in the infinitive mode, is used aa 
the subject-nominative. 



124 MODELS FOR THE ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 

The predicate is complex ; is is the predicate-verb ; it is qualified by the 
adjective base, which describes the words used as the subject-nominative. 

3. — " The purest ore is produced from the hottest furnace." 

This is a sentence, simple, declarative. 

The purest ore is the subject; is produced from the hottest furnace is the 
predicate. 

The subject is complex ; the subject nominative is ore, which is qualified 
by the article the, and by the adjective purest. 

The predicate is complex; the predicate-verb is is produced, which is 
qualified by the prepositional phrase, from the hottest furnace; in this 
phrase, the noun furnace is qualified by its adjuncts the and hottest. 

COMPLEX SENTENCES. 1.— "The evil that men do, lives after them." 

This is a sentence; "A Sentence is, etc."; declarative, because it is used to 
affirm something; complex, because it contains, etc. 

The independent or principal clause is, The evil lives after them; the 
dependent or qualifying clause is, that men do; the clauses are connected by 
the relative that. 

In the independent clause, the evil is the subject, and lives after them is the 
predicate. The subject is complex; the subject-nominative is evil, which is 
qualified by the article the, and by the dependent clause, that men do. 

The predicate is complex ; the predicate-verb is lives, which is qualified by 
the adjunct after them. 

In the dependent clause, men is the subject, and do that is the predicate. 
The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative. The predicate is 
complex ; do is the predicate- verb, which is qualified by its object, the rela- 
tive that. 

2. — " That crime deserves punishment needs only to be asserted, in order to 
be admitted." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex. 

The dependent clause, That crime deserves punishment, is used as the subject 
of the independent clause, needs only to be asserted, etc., which constitutes the 
predicate. The connective is the conjunction that. 

In the independent clause, the predicate is complex; needs is the predicate- 
verb, and is qualified by the infinitive to be asserted, which is itself qualified 
by the adverb only, and by the prepositional phrase, in order to be admitted. 
In this phrase, in order is qualified by the infinitive to be admitted. 

In the dependent clause, crime is the subject, and deserves punishnient is the 
predicate. 

The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative. • 



MODELS FOR THE 1 ANALYSIS OF SENTENCES. 125 

The predicate is complex ; the predicate- verb is deserves, which is qualified 
by its object punishment. 

3. — " Whatever he undertook, prospered." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex, in which the compound relative 
whatever is equivalent to every thing which. 

The independent clause is, every thing (included in whatever) prospered ; 
the dependent clause is, which (included in whatever) he undertook; the con- 
nective is the compound relative whatever. 

In the independent clause, every thing is the subject, and prospered is the 
predicate; the subject is complex; thing is the subject-nominative, which is 
qualified by the adjective every. The predicate is simple, and is also the pre- 
dicate-verb. 

In the dependent clause, he is the subject; undertook which is the predicate. 
The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative; the predicate is 
complex; the predicate-verb is undertook, and is qualified by its object which. 

4. — " If we examine with minuteness the falling snow, we will observe, 
if the air be very calm, that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly 
delicate particles of ice, which are united together with wonderful regularity." 

This is a sentence, declarative, complex, consisting of five propositions or 
clauses. 

I. The principal clause is, We will observe. 

II. This is qualified by the dependent clause, if we examine im'th minute- 
ness the falling snow. They are connected by the conjunction if. 

III. The principal clause is also qualified by the dependent clause, if the 
air be very calm; these are connected by another conjunction, if. 

IV. The principal clause is also qualified by (or introduces) the dependent 
clause, that each flake consists of a number of exceedingly delicate particles 
of ice, which is used as the object of the predicate-verb ivill observe. They 
are connected by the conjunction that. 

"* V. The last mentioned dependent clause is itself qualified, or has one of 
the words in it, ice, qualified by the dependent (adjective) clause, which are 
united together with wonderful regularity. 

Each of these clauses may be analyzed according to preceding models. 

COMPOUND SENTENCES. 1.— "Art is founded upon science; and the 
former cannot exist, even in a rude state, without the latter." 

This is a sentence, declarative, compound. 

The first member is, Art is founded upon science; the second is, the former 

cannot exist, even in a rude state, without the latter. They are connected by 

the conjunction and. 

11* 



126 GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

In the first member, art is the subject; is founded upon science is the predicate 
The subject is simple, and is also the subject-nominative; the predicate is com- 
plex; the predicate-verb is is founded, which is qualified by the adjunct upon 
science. 

In the second member, the subject is the former ; the predicate is, cannot 
exist, even in a rude state, without the latter. 

The subject is complex; the subject-nominative is former (representing 
art), which is qualified by the article the. 

The predicate is complex; the predicate-verb is can exist, which is quail 
tied by the adverb not, by the adjunct without the latter, in which the is the 
qualifier of latter (representing science), and by the adverbial phrase, even in 
a rude state, which consists of the adverb even and its qualifying adjunct in 
a rude state. In this adjunct a and rude are the qualifications of state. 

2. — "Decision and obstinacy often resemble each other, though one is the 
child of wisdom, the other of error; a decided man thinks deeply, an obsti- 
nate one seldom thinks at all." 

This is a sentence, declarative, compound, consisting of two members. 

The first member is, Decision and obstinacy often resemble each other, though 
one is the child of ivisdom, the other of error. It is complex, consisting of the 
independent clause, Decision and obstinacy resemble each other, qualified by two 
dependent clauses, — namely, though one is the child of wisdom, and (though) the 
other (is the child) of error. These are connected with the independent clause 
by the conjunction though, and with each other by the conjunction and (not 
mentioned). 

The subject of the independent clause is compound, consisting of the two 
simple subjects, decision and obstinacy, connected by and. 

The second member is, a decided man thinks deeply, an obstinate one seldom 
thinks at all. It is compound, consisting of the two propositions (or secondary 
members), a decided man thinks deeply, and an obstinate one seldom thinks at 
a ll } — which are connected by the conjunction (but or and) not mentioned. 

Each member and its propositions may be analyzed as before. 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

The rounded hills slope gently to the sea. Attention to business will pro- 
vide security against want. To instruct others is beneficial to the mind. 
The villagers were all poor. Adams and Jefferson died on the same day, the 
fourth of July, 1826. Oh! what riches Love doth inherit! Thompson and 
I had a fortnight's holiday. Follow whither virtue leads thee. Oh! wretch 
that I am ! to what place shall I betake myself? Early in the morning I 
visited my traps. The wind and the rain have ceased. One deed of shame 



i 
GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 127 

Is often succeeded by years of penitence. Times of general calamity have 
ever been productive of the greatest minds. 

"What a piece of work is man ! Rome, republican Rome, whose eagles 
glanced in the rising and the setting sun, — where and what is she? The 
darkness increasing, we beheld sparkles of sea-fire glittering through the 
gloom. Beautiful, there, was every season with its changes. There is a 
divinity that shapes our ends. My involuntary dread of thunder had its 
origin in an incident which occurred when I was a boy of ten years. 
Strange, that after a lapse of many years that occurrence should be so 
familiar to me. 

The characteristic peculiarity of the " Pilgrim'3 Progress" is, that it is the 
only work of its kind which possesses a strong human interest. Oh my 
lord! must I then leave you? Earnestness, self-sacrifice, endurance, and 
benevolence, quicken and ennoble life. Daniel Boone, the pioneer of Ken- 
tucky, was born in Bucks county, Pennsylvania, in the month of February, 
1735. The stranger asked what building was burned last night. 

Christianity is the best foundation for good manners ; and of two persons 
having equal knowledge of the world, the one who Is the better Christian will 
be the person of the best manners. Hail ! thou inexhaustible source of 
wonder and emotion ! how glorious, how awful, how beautiful, are the scenes 
which thou displayes£! No bridges were made over any of the streams; 
there were no roads, nor any houses except Indian wigwams. I have but 
one lamp by which my feet are guided, and that is the lamp of experience. 
Judge not, and ye shall not be judged. The better and more nutritious the 
diet, the better the health. 

Those evening bells ! those evening bells ! 
How many a tale their music tells ! 

The angel's face, 
As the great eye of heaven, shined bright, 
And made a sunshine in the shady place. 

By ceaseless action, all that is, subsists. The simplicity of his character 
inspired confidence, the ardor of his eloquence roused enthusiasm, and the 
gentleness of his manners invited friendship. I go to hear Rowland Hill 
because his ideas come red-hot from the heart. 

While the West was thus rising to confront the king, the North was all in a 
flame behind him. He insisted, that the existing statutes should be obeyed 
till they should be altered by competent authorities, and that all persons who 
held office without legal qualifications should be forthwith dismissed. The 
deliberations of the parliament, he justly conceived, could not be free if it 



128 GENERAL EXERCISES IN ANALYSIS. 

must sit surrounded, by Irish regiments, while he and his army lay at a 
distance of several marches. He therefore thought it reasonable that, since 
his troops were not to advance within forty miles of London on tbe west, the 
king's troops should fall back as far to the east. There would thus be 
round the spot where the Houses were to meet a wide circle of neutral 
ground. 

No man contemplates with greater tenderness than we do the frailties of 
])r. Johnson; none respects more the sound parts of his moral system, or 
admires more the vigor of the elephantine step with which he sometimes 
tramples down insolent error and presumptuous sophistry; but let no young 
man who wishes to learn to write well, study his style. 

Let the young aspirant after literary distinction who wishes to study a 
style which possesses the characteristic beauties of Addison's, its ease, sim- 
plicity, and elegance, with greater accuracy, point, and spirit, give his days 
and nights to the volumes of Irving. 

How sleep the brave who sink to rest, 
By all their country's wishes blest ! 
"When Spring, with dewy fingers cold, 
Returns to deck their hallowed mould, 
She there shall dress a sweeter sod 
Than Fancy's feet have ever trod. 

By fairy hands their knell is rung; 
By forms unseen their dirge is sung; 
There Honor comes, a pilgrim gray, 
To bless the turf that wraps their clay; 
And Freedom shall awhile repair, 
To dwell a weeping hermit there. 

So live, that, when thy summons comes to join 
The innumerable caravan, that moves 
To the pale realms of shade, where each shall take 
His chamber in the silent halls of death, 
Thou go not, like the quarry-slave at night, 
Scourged to his dungeon; but, sustained and soothed 
By an unfaltering trust, approach thy grave, 
Like one who wraps the drapery of his couch 
About him, and lies down to pleasant dreams. 



SYNTHESIS. 129 



SYNTHESIS. 



Synthesis is that division of Syntax which treats of the 
construction of sentences from words, according to prin- 
ciples called Rules of Syntax. 

In Syntax, words relate to others, show relation between words, 
agree, govern, connect, depend, or are independent. 

1. A word relates to another, when it is used to describe that 
word, or to limit or qualify its meaning. 

Articles, adjectives, pronominal adjectives, and participles, relate 
principally to nouns or pronouns ; and adverbs, to verbs, adjectives, 
or adverbs. 

2. A word shows relation, when it associates with some preceding 
word the idea expressed by the word which follows it. 

Prepositions show the relation between nouns and pronouns princi- 
pally and some preceding word. 

3. A word agrees with another, when the two words are similar 
in one or more properties common to both. 

Personal and relative pronouns, and verbs, agree principally with 
nouns or pronouns. 

4. A word governs another, when the former determines the form 
or case of the latter. 

Verbs, participles, and prepositions, govern other words, princi- 
pally nouns or pronouns. 

5. A word connects, when it unites words in the same construction, 
or when it unites parts of a sentence, or sentences. 

Conjunctions and conjunctive adverbs connect. 

6. A word depends upon another, when the former is used to con* 
plete the sense or application of the latter. 

Verbs in the infinitive mode depend upon other words, principally 
upon verbs, adjectives, or nouns. 

7. A word is independent, when it has no grammatical connection 
with any other word. 

Interjections, certain adverbs, and sometimes other parts of speech, 
are independent. 



130 RULES OF SYNTAX. 



ETJLES OP SYNTAX. 



I. Subject of Finite Verb. — A noun or a pronoun 
which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative 
case. 

II. Nominative Case Independent. — A noun or a 
pronoun whose case does not depend upon its connection 
with any other word, is in the nominative case inde- 
pendent. 

III. Possessive Case. — A noun or a pronoun in the 
possessive case limits the word used as the name of the 
thing possessed. 

IV. Objective Case. — A noun or a pronoun which 
is the object of an action or of a relation, is in the objective 
case. 

V. Apposition. — A noun or a pronoun put in apposi- 
tion with another is in the same case. 

VI. Same Case after Verb. — A noun or a pro- 
noun placed after an intransitive verb, or a verb in the 
passive voice, is in the same case as the noun or the pro- 
noun preceding the verb and meaning the same person or 
thing. 

VII. Personal Pronouns. — A personal pronoun 
agrees with the noun which it represents, in number, per- 
son, and gender. 

VIII. Eelative Pronouns. — A relative pronoun 
agrees with its antecedent in number, person, and gender. 

IX. Articles. — An article relates to the noun which 
it limits in meaning. 

X. Adjectives. — An adjective relates to the noun or 
the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XI. Pronominal Adjectives. — A pronominal ad- 
jective relates to the noun which it limits,— or agrees with 



i 
RULE I. — SUBJECT OF FINITE VERB NOTES. 131 

the noun which it represents, in number, person, and 
gender. 

XII. Agreement of Finite Verbs. — A finite verb 
agrees with its subject in number and person. 

XIII. Infinitives. — A verb in the infinitive mode 
depends upon the word which it limits or completes in 
meaning. 

XI Y. Participles. — A participle relates to the noun 
or the pronoun which it describes or limits. 

XY. Adverbs. — An adverb relates to the verb, the 
adjective, or the other adverb, which it qualifies. 

XVI. Prepositions. — A preposition shows the re- 
lation between the noun or the pronoun which follows it 
and some preceding word. 

XVII. Conjunctions. — A conjunction connects the 
words, the parts of a sentence, or the sentences, between 
which it is placed. 

XVIII. Interjections. — An interjection has no 
grammatical dependence upon any other word. 

RULE I. — subject of finite verb. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite 
verb, is in the nominative case. 

NOTES. 

1. The subject of a verb may be a verb in the infinitive mode, 
a part of a sentence, a sentence, or any word, used as a noun in the 
nominative case; as, "To sleep is refreshing/' — "That the earth is 
round, was denied by the ancients." — " Them is often incorrectly 
used for those." — " 'Never despair/ is a good motto." 

2. Several nouns, pronouns, infinitives, phrases, or clauses, may be 
subjects of the same verb; as, "Wealth, fame, and happiness, were 
his." — " To walk humbly, to deal justly, and to show mercy, are re- 
quired of all." 



132 EULE I. — EXEECISES. 

3. Nouns in the first, or in the second person, are never the 
subjects of finite verbs. (Rule V., Note 1.) 

4. A noun and the pronoun representing it are sometimes im- 
properly used as subjects of the same verb; as, "The shy it was 
obscured with clouds;" — omit it, and say, "The sky was ob- 
scured, etc." 

5. Every nominative, except when used independently (Rule 2), 
or after the verb (Rule 6), or in apposition (Rule 5), is the subject 
of some verb mentioned or understood. 

6. The subject is generally placed before the verb; as, "They 
never fail who die in a good cause." 

The following instances are exceptions : — 

I. "When a question is asked, without the use of an interrogative 
as the subject; as, "Where is he, about whom you spoke?" 

II. When a verb in the imperative mode is used; as, "Depart 
{thou) in peace." 

III. When a verb in the subjunctive mode is used without a 
conjunction mentioned; as, " Were wisdom to be had for the wishing, 
all would be wise." 

IV. When a verb in the potential mode is used to express an 
earnest wish; as, "May peace and plenty abound within our borders." 

V. When the adverb there is used before the verb ; as, " There is 
one thing that happeneth to all men." 

VI. When emphasis is used ; as, "On rolled the tide of war." 

VII. When words quoted are introduced or separated by the 
verbs say, answer, reply, etc. ; as, '"Truth/ said the soothsayer, ' can 
neither be bought nor sold/" 

VIII. In poetry; as, " From crag to crag leaps the thunder" 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "Him who expects to succeed in life, must be industrious." 
This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the objective 
case, is used as the subject of the finite verb must be; but, according to 
Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, etc." 
Therefore Mm should be he, and the sentence should be, "He who expects to 
succeed in life must be industrious." 

2. — " The moon it shed its pale beams o'er the landscape." 
This sentence is incorrect, because moon and the pronoun it, which repre- 
sents it, are used as subjects of the same verb; but, according to Note under 



I 

EULE I. — EXERCISES. 133 

Rule I., "A noun and the pronoun, etc." Therefore it should be omitted, and 
the sentence should be, " The moon shed her pale beams o'er the landscape." 

I. Him who was once so cheerful is now quite depressed. 2. Happy is 
him alone who depends not upon the pleasures of this world for his enjoy- 
ment. 3. Our teachers said that she and me were seldom disobedient. 4. 
Whom do you think did the mischief? Him, certainly. 5. Them, and them 
only who are virtuous, can deserve respect. 6. The boat was pushed off from 
the brink, and him and his dog were left alone in the forest. 7. How 
much older are you than us ? 8. When the ship struck, us sailors took to 
the long-boat, and the vessel began to fill immediately. 9. I love them that 
love me, and them that seek me early shall find me. 10. "Point out the 
man," said the judge, " whom you say committed the robbery." 

II. Who wishes to merit the praise of his teacher? Me. 12. Justice it is 
represented as being blind. 13. Him and his friend were almost inseparable. 
14. Whom dost thee regard most blamable, him or his brother? 15. The 
man he was disliked by his companions. 16. Dishonesty however well it 
may prosper for a time, yet justice will finally prevail. 17. I can not endure 
as much as thee. 18. Alexander, whom by his genius had conquered nearly 
all the whole world, he wept because there were no other worlds to conquer. 
19. This is the boy whom we think deserved the reward. 20. Death it must 
come to the rich and to the poor. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the subjects in the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Huge icebergs surrounded the vessel." 

Icebergs. — Icebergs surrounded. — "Icebergs" is a common noun, in the 
plural number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nomi- 
native case, being the subject of the finite verb surrounded, according to 
Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the 
nominative case." 

2. — " To study is not always pleasant." 

To study. — To study is. — " To study" is an intransitive verb, regular (pres. 
study, past studied, perf. part, studied) ; — in the infinitive mode, present tense ; 
it is used as a noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter 
gender; — in the nominative case, being the subject of the finite verb is, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule I., " The subject of a verb may be, etc." 

1. Old men go to Death, but Death comes to young men. 2. Politeness 
and respect will secure friends. 3. To know our ignorance is the height of 
wisdom. 4. Many men seem great, only because their associates are little. 
5. To avoid the errors of the foolish, requires constant watchfulness. 6. Thus 
passed from its tenement of clay, a, soul fitted for the company of angels. 



134 RULE II. NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

7. The horse mocketh at fear and is not affrighted. 8. Will industry always 
bring its reward? 9. The great ones of the earth might learn many a lesson 
from the little. 10. "While there is life there is hope," cried he. 

11. Virtue is better than vice; for virtue leads, and vice misleads us. 12. 
The works of nature and of art should be carefully considered by us. 13. To 
be eaimest in the performance of our duties, promises the best assurance of 
success. 14. The trials of life should be borne by us with patience. 15. 
Goodness and mercy shall follow me all the days of my life. 16. The stream 
flows swiftly, and the tiny boat is borne along on the rippling waters. 17. 
That friendship is a sacred trust, can not be doubted. 18. " I will try" rides 
in his coach, while " I can not" walks, clothed in rags. 19. That life is long 
which answers life's great end. 20. Look not upon the wine when it is red. 

RULE II. NOMINATIVE CASE INDEPENDENT. 

A noun or a pronoun whose case does not depend upon 
its connection with any other word, is in the nominative 
case independent. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun may be in the nominative case inde- 
pendent under five circumstances ; — 

I. When it represents a person or a thing addressed; as, "My 
son, attend unto my words." — "0 Death, where is thy sting? 
Grave, where is thy victory?" 

This is called the nominative independent by addi-ess. 

II. When it is used in exclamation; as, "Oh, the happy days 
of childhood!" — "Home! how sweet the sound V 

This is called the nominative independent by exclamation. 

III. When it follows the infinitive mode or the participle of an 
intransitive verb, or the infinitive mode or the participle of a verb in 
the passive voice; as, "To be a good man is not easy." — "To be called 
a Christian was in former times considered a disgrace." — " His being 
called a villain did not make him one." 

In such instances the infinitive or the participle is used as a noun. 
This is called the nominative independent after the infinitive or the 
participle. 

IV. When by pleonasm it is mentioned to introduce a thought, 
and the pronoun representing it is the subject of the verb; as, "He 
that hath ears to hear, let him hear." — " The storm has spent its 
rage, but that gallant bark — where is she?" 

This is called the nominative independent by pleonasm. 



RULE II. EXERCISES. 135 

V. "When it is placed before a participle relating to it; as, "This 
army being defeated, all hostilities ceased." 

This is called the nominative independent before a participle. 

2. The nominative independent and its participle are equivalent 
in meaning to a clause beginning with when, while, since, etc., in 
which the participle is changed into a finite verb, and the noun or 
the pronoun becomes its subject: thus, "All the members having 
arrived, business was commenced," means, " When all the members 
had arrived, etc." 

3. The noun or the pronoun which is used independently before a 
participle is sometimes omitted ; as, " Considering the difficulties, it 
is surprising that they succeeded;" that is, "I, we, or persons con- 
sidering, etc." 

4. The participle in independent constructions is frequently 
omitted; as, "Their icork over, the party retired ;" that is, "Their 
work being over, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " Thee, who art with glory and majesty crowned !" 
This sentence is incorrect, because Thee, which is a pronoun in the objective 
case, is used to represent the name of a person addressed ; but, according to 
Note under Rule II., A noun or a pronoun used to represent a person or 
a thing addressed, is in the nominative case independent. Therefore Thee 
should be Thou, and the sentence should be, " Thou, who art with glory 
and majesty crowned!" 

2. — " Him having overthrown the enemies of his country, peace was 
restored." 

This sentence is incorrect, because him, which is a pronoun in the objective 
case, is used independently before the participle having overthrown ; but, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule II., A noun or a pronoun placed before a par- 
ticiple relating to it, is in the nominative case independent. Therefore him 
should be he, and the sentence should be, " He having overthrown the ene- 
mies of his country, peace was restored." 

1. happy them who had such blessings bestowed upon them ! 2. Him, 
whom all respected, having committed the act, great surprise was felt. 3. 
miserable him, wbo had thus squandered the precious years of manhood ! 4. 
Him having enlarged his mind by study, are not his pleasures increased? 5. 
There was no one to surround him with good influences, ber being dead. 
6. Thee alone remaining of all who then met, the uncertainty o£ life is 



136 RULE II. — EXERCISES. 

shown. 7. Your refusing to grant my desires, I will withdraw my claim. 
8. Them alone excepted, the Jews were the most learned of the ancients. 

9. Our yielding to the difficulties, nothing was accomplished. 10. Her 
being unjustly reproved, I could not hold my peace. 11. Oh ! thee who by 
thy friendship hast contributed to my happiness, art thou to be lost to me ? 

12. And them, are not all of them to be rewarded for their long-suffering ? 

13. Whom having prepared their fleets, all sails were set. 14. Them bearing 
patiently the wrongs heaped upon them, the greater were their burdens made. 
15. Their being but a small body, only contempt was felt for the cause. 

Exercise II. — Parse the words used independently in the following 
sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Begone dull care, thou and I can never agree." 
Care. — " Care" has no grammatical connection. " Care" is a common 
noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the neuter gender; it is 
in the nominative case independent by address, according to Rule II., "A 
noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — "The Gauls being conquered, Caesar returned in triumph to Rome." 
Gauls. — "Gauls" has no grammatical connection. "Gauls" is a proper 
noun, in the plural number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is 
in the nominative case independent before the participle being conquered, 
according to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

3. — " The Americans succeeded in their efforts to become an independent 
nation." 

Nation. — "Nation" has no grammatical connection. " Nation" is a col- 
lective noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender; 
it is in the nominative case independent after the infinitive to become, accord- 
ing to Rule II., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Darest thou, Cassius, now leap with me into this angry flood ? 2. 
liberty ! liberty ! how many crimes are committed in thy name ! 3. To 
become a painter was the height of his ambition. 4. The sun shining from 
an unclouded sky, all nature was clothed in beauty. 5. Delightful task! to 
rear the tender thought. 6. Angels and ministers of grace, defend us ! 7. 
Beautiful Venice! pride of the sea! 8. The brave commander of the expe- 
dition being killed, the fleet was obliged to surrender. 9. Romans, country- 
men, and lovers ! hear me for my cause. 10. Go, soul, the body's guest, upon 
a thankless errand. 

II. Those evening bells! how many a tale their music tells. 12. Tell 
me, my soul, can this be death ? 13. Thy rod and thy staff, they comfort 
me. 14. Man being born in sorrow, his days are spent in misery. 15. I 
came not, friends, to steal away your hearts. 16. Fair Greece! sad relic 



I 

RULE III. — POSSESSIVE CASE — KOTES. 137 

of departed worth; though fallen, she is great. 17. Must I thus leave thee, 
Paradise? 18. What! are you hurt, lieutenant? 19. To be a great man 
lies not in the power of all, but to be a good man is possible. 20. And I have 
loved thee, Ocean ! 

bosom, black as death ! 
limed soul : that struggling to be free, 
Art only more engaged. Help, Angels, make assay ! 
Bow stubborn knees ! and heart with strings of steel, 
Be soft as sinews of the new-Joorn babe. 

RULE III.— POSSESSIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits the 
word used as the name of the thing possessed. 

NOTES. 

1. In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, the 
proper forms should always be written; as, The boy's hat; the 
ladies' dresses; — " This book was hers. 1 " 

2. A noun or a pronoun is usually placed immediately before the 
noun denoting the thing possessed; except when an adjective which 
describes or limits the same noun is placed between the noun and 
the possessive; as, "The company's vessel was lost." — "The com- 
pany's largest vessel was lost." 

3. The possessive and the word limited by it are sometimes con- 
nected by a hyphen and form a compound word; as, A cameVs- 
Jiair brush. 

A compound word is sometimes formed from the possessive and 
the word limited by it, by omitting both the hyphen and the sign 
of the possessive; as, Goatskin, for goat's sJan. 

The possessive and the word limited by it, and the compounds 
formed from them, do not always have the same meaning: thus, cat- 
head (a part of a vessel), cat's-head (a plant), and a cat's head, express 
quite different ideas. 

4. The idea expressed by the possessive may also be denoted by 
the preposition of, followed by the objective: thus, " The sun's 
rays." means " The rays of the sun." 

These two modes of expression, however, do not always -mean 
the same thing: thus, "The queen's picture" means a picture be- 
longing to her; but, "A picture of the queen" means a portrait of 

12* 



138 RULE III. — NOTES. 

her. " The lord's house," means the mansion or residence belonging 
to a lord; but " The House of Lords," means the legislative body 
composed of lords. 

5. The word limited by the possessive may be omitted when its 
use is not required to complete the sense ; as, " He bought the goods 
at Stewart's ( store )." 

6. The noun omitted after the possessive following of is the same 
as the noun which precedes of, and is always in the plural number ; 
as, " This is a painting of West's (paintings)." 

7. In the use of complex nouns the sign of the possessive is suf- 
fixed to the last word of the complex name; as, "Washington Irving' s 
' Life of Columbus' should be in every library." 

When the last word of a complex name is in the objective case, 
it is preferable to express the idea of possession by means of a 
preposition and its object: thus, instead of "The Pope of Rome's 
temporal power," say, " The temporal power of the Pope of Rome." 

8. The use of several successive nouns in the possessive case 
should be avoided, and the idea of possession expressed by pre- 
positions and their objects: thus, "The king's favorite's servant's 
horse was slain," should be, " The horse belonging to the servant of 
the king's favorite was slain." 

9. When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, and 
denote joint owners of the same thing, the sign of the possessive is 
suffixed to the last noun only ; as, William and Mary's reign ; Wil- 
liam, John, and James's teacher. 

When one or more of the nouns connected in the possessive are 
used for the sake of emphasis, the sign of the possessive is suf- 
fixed to each; as, " It was Charles's, not Mail's fault." — "Henry's, 
which was also partly Howard's book, was lost." 

When two or more nouns in the possessive are connected, and 
denote separate owners of different things, the sign of the possessive 
is suffixed to each noun; as, "Taylor's and Santa Anna's armies 
were unequal in numbers." 

10. When a noun in the possessive has one or more nouns in ap- 
position (Rule V., Note 5) with it, the sign should be suffixed to that 
which immediately precedes the noun, mentioned or understood, 
which is limited by the possessive; as, Paul the Apostle's letter; At 
Smith's the watchmaker and jeweler. 

11. When a clause is used to explain a noun in the possessive, 
the idea of possession should be denoted by a preposition and its ob- 
ject, with the explanatory clause following: thus, " She praised the 



I 
RULE III. NOTES-— EXERCISES. 139 

peasant's, as he was called, good breeding," should be, "She praised 
the good breeding of the peasant, as he was called." 

12. When a noun in the possessive case is put in apposition with 
a pronoun in the possessive, the sign may be omitted ; as, " Such 
was his wisdom, the foremost man of all his age." — " His reputa- 
tion as a lawgiver has descended even to our times." (Rule V., N. 6.) 

13. The possessive may limit a participial noun; as, "The head 
and front of my offending hath this extent." — " The boy's playing 
was admired by all." 

14. Sometimes the possessive is used to limit a participle which 
retains all the properties of a participle; as, "His having a ticket 
insured his immediate admission." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " 'Ladies Cabin' was painted above the door." 
This expression is incorrect, because ladies, which is intended for the pos- 
sessive plural, has not the proper form; but, according to Note under Rule III., 
"In the use of nouns and pronouns in the possessive case, etc." There- 
fore, ladies should be ladies', and the expression should be, "'Ladies' Cabin* 
was painted above the door." 

2. — "The thief restored neither Brown nor Smith's goods." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the sign of the possessive is not suffixed 
to the noun Brown, which is one of two nouns connected in the possessive; 
but, according to Note under Rule III., " When two or more nouns in the 
possessive are connected, and denote separate owners of different things, 
etc." Therefore Brown should be Brown's, and the sentence should be, 
" The thief restored neither Brown's nor Smith's goods." 

I. "William's H. Prescott's " Conquest of Peru" is a very interesting 
work. 2. The* fire destroyed Pierce's, Taylors, and Clay's store. 3. The 
volume was issued by Harpers', the publishers' and booksellers'. 4. Tenny- 
son's, the poet-laureate of England, fame will live through coming ages. 5. 
Napoleon and Wellington's armies deserved such commanders. 6. The 
mistake was the general, not the soldiers'. 7. The commodore's vessel's 
masts were shot away. 8. The Protector's picture was an exact resem- 
blance of his features. 9. No means remained to prevent him escaping. 
10. The girl and boy's names were written on the blank leaf. 

II. King James' translation of the Bible was made in the beginning of the 
sixteenth century. 12. The Declaration of Independence's anniversary was 
generally observed. 13. The movements of the army gained the king, as well 
as the people's, approbation. 14 The Prince of Orange's, who is called " The 



140 RULE III. EXERCISES. 

Silent," death was deeply lamented by his countrymen. 15. Whose conduct 
was most praiseworthy? — Chailes. 16. The cat's head raised in the garden 
did not come to perfection. 17. The bonds were bought at Cooke the broker 
and banker's on Third Street. 18. The King of France's edict against the 
Catholics was revoked. 19. The Czar's, Peter the Great's, efforts to promote 
the welfare of his country were highly successful. 20. The Representatives 
house assembled on the first Monday in December. 

Exercise II. — Parse the possessives in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — "President Harrison's death occurred April 4, 1841." 
President Harrison's. — President Harrison's death. — President Harrison's 
is a complex proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the 
masculine gender; it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun death, 
according to Rule III., "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case limits 
the word used as the name of the thing possessed." 

2. — " ' The Deliverance of Leyden' is a painting of Wittkamp's." 
Wittkamp's. — Wittkamp's {iiaintings). — "Wittkamp's" is a proper noun, in 
the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gender; it is in 
the possessive case, and limits the noun paintings, understood, according to 
Rule III., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Order is Heaven's first law. 2. One fire burns out another's burning. 
3. Queen Anne's reign has been called the Augustan age of English lite- 
rature. 4. The French emperor's well-known and often-tried powers of en- 
durance were astonishing. 5. Man's reasoning faculties are given to him 
for a noble purpose. 6. In our travels we stopped at Wordsworth's, the 
poet. 7. After life's fitful fever he sleeps well. 8. The Roundheads' and 
the Parliament's forces were soon engaged. 9. An atheist's laugh's a poor 
exchange for Deity offended. 10. The best portion of a good man's life 
are his little, unremembered acts of kindness and of love. • 

II. Dr. Kane's Arctic explorations have added much to our knowledge 
of the Polar regions. 12. Captain Lawrence's "Don't give up the ship" has 
made his name immortal. 13. happiness! our being's end and aim. 
14. The tyrant's plea, necessity, governed the king in all his acts. 15. Long- 
fellow's "Evangeline" is considered his best work, as a poet. 16. The 
rulers' necessity is the people's opportunity. 17. New-made honor doth 
forget men's names. 18. This picture of Washington's was sold at an ex- 
orbitant price. 19. Ferdinand and Isabella's reign is regarded as the most 
glorious in Spanish history. 20. Martin Luther the Reformer's life was 
beset with trials and dangers. 



RULE IV. — OBJECTIVE CASE — NOTES. 141 



RULE IV. OBJECTIVE CASE. 

A noun or a pronoun which is the object of an action or 
of a relation, is in the objective case. 

Action refers to the action asserted by a verb, and relation to the 
relation denoted by a preposition. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun can be the object of an action expressed 
only by a transitive verb in the active voice, or by an intransitive 
verb used transitively ; as, " Strive to perform your duties, and 
your friends will respect you." — " The peasant lived a life of toil." 

A verb may have several objects connected by one or more con- 
junctions; as, "He shall no more behold wife, friends, or children." 

2. A noun or a pronoun may also be the object of an action ex- 
pressed by the participle of a transitive verb in the active voice, or 
of an intransitive verb used transitively; as, "A lake was seen re- 
fecting the rays of the sun." 

3. The object of a verb or of a participle may be a phrase, a 
clause, or a sentence, — used as a noun; as, "The colonists deter- 
mined to resist the Stamp Act." — " Galileo proved that the earth is 
round." — " Take ' Touch not, taste not, handle not,' for your motto." 

4. A preposition should never be placed between a verb and the 
object of the action expressed by the verb: thus, "The family did 
not appear to want for any thing," should be, " The family did not 
appear to want any thing." 

5. A verb in the passive voice should never be used to govern an 
objective case, because the object of the. action expressed by the 
verb is the subject of the verb: thus, "He was offered a foreign 
appointment," should be, "A foreign appointment ivas offered to 
him." 

6. An intransitive verb, or the participle of an intransitive verb, 
should not be used to govern the objective case: thus, "I will sit me 
down to rest," should be, " I will sit down to rest." 

7. Transitive verbs of naming, choosing, etc., seem to have two 
objects not connected by a conjunction; as, "He called his son 
Thomas." 

In such instances the latter noun is in apposition with the noun 
or the pronoun preceding, which is the real object. (Rule V., 
Note 7.) 



142 ETJLE IV. — NOTES. 

The omission of a preposition, usually to, for, or of, gives a verb 
the appearance of governing two objectives: "He asked me a ques- 
tion," means, "He asked of me a question/' — "I bought him a 
book," means, " I bought a book for him." 

When the object of the action expressed by the verb precedes the 
other object, the preposition is mentioned; as, "He taught the 
alphabet to him." 

A verb, therefore, never governs two objects, unless they are con- 
nected by a conjunction mentioned or understood. 

8. Some nouns seem to be used without any governing word: 
thus, " He traveled several miles before he overtook the party." 

In such instances the objective seems to have somewhat the force 
of an adverb; but it is better to supply a preposition than to call 
the expression an adverb. 

9. A noun or a pronoun is sometimes the object of the relation 
denoted by two or more prepositions; or of a preposition and a 
transitive verb ; as, "He went into and passed through the house." 
— ' ' The general proposed, and afterwards determined upon, his plans 
of operations." 

In all such expressions the object should be placed after the first 
verb or preposition, and each of the others should be followed by a 
pronoun representing the object; as, " He went into the house and 
passed through it." — " The general proposed his plans of operations, 
and afterwards determined upon them." 

10. The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed 
after the verb or the preposition by which it is governed; as, "I 
love to hear a hearty laugh above all other sounds;" — except when 
used for the sake of emphasis; as, "Him, whom I can not trust, I 
can not respect." 

11. The object should never be separated from the verb by an 
explanatory phrase or clause: thus, "He assisted, an act deserving 
much praise, the poor people who asked his aid," should be, "He 
assisted the poor people who asked his aid, an act, etc." 

12. When the object of an action is a relative or an interrogative, 
it may precede the verb, or both the verb and the subject; as, 
u Whom did the government appoint to the command ?" 

13. The relative that always precedes the verb or the preposition 
by which it is governed; as," He is the best man that I know." — 
"Who, that we can appeal to, will decide differently?" 

14. Whom and which are sometimes placed before the preposition 
by which they are governed, — but inelegantly: thus, " Whom did 



I 

RULE IV. — EXERCISES. 143 

you speak to?" should be, "To whom did you speak?" They usually 
precede the verb ; as, "The picture which I saw." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or 
the note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " They who become great through their own merit, the world 
will commend." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the pronoun they, which is in the 
nominative case, is used as the object of the action expressed by commend, a 
transitive verb in the active voice; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or 
a pronoun, etc." Therefore they should be them, and the sentence should 
be, " Them who become great through their own merits, the world will 
commend." 

2. — "He was offered a seat in the president's cabinet." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the noun seat is used as the object 
of was offered, a verb in the passive voice ; but, according to Note under 
Rule V., "A verb in the passive voice should never be used, etc." Therefore 
the sentence should be, "A seat in the president's cabinet was offered to him." 

3.— "Who did you ask for?" 

This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who, which is in the nomi- 
native case, is used as the object of the relation denoted by the preposition 
for ; but, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; therefore who 
should be whom. The sentence is also incorrect (or inelegant), because the 
preposition for is placed after the word which it governs; but by Note under 
Rule IV., "The object of an action or of a relation is generally placed, etc." 
Therefore the sentence should be, "For whom did you ask?" 

I. Who did you accompany in your journey across the prairies? 2. He 
was presented the highest prize as a reward for his proficiency in Latin. 3. 
The traveler being weary sat himself down by the road-side to rest. 4. The 
boy's parents resolved not to permit of such conduct. 5. It is our duty to 
feel for, and to assist, those in want. 6. Who did you desire to purchase the 
book? he or I? 7. The Indians have been deprived of, and driven from, their 
former hunting-grounds. 8. Who, were I righteous, yet would I not answer. 
9> Thou, whom I am proud to include among my friends, I will always 
respect. 10. He to whom much is given, much will be required of. 

II. Every one can master a grief but he that hath it. 12. The mistress found 
it a difficult task to teach the alphabet her little pupiL 13. The gentleman 
who I was with is a book-keeper in Johnson, the jeweler and watchmaker's. 
li. Him, having nothing to disturb his thoughts, read a poem of Tennyson, who 
all regard as a poet of the first order. 15. I fear me, thee wilt suffer much 



144 EULE IY.^-EXEECISES. 

if thee pursuest thy present course. 16. He was not allowed the privilege 
to debate the question the second time. 17. The merchant, after a life of in- 
dustry, can not retire himself at once to a life devoid of employment. 18. 
He undertook, as every one should do, his task, with a determination to 
succeed. 19. He who can learn nothing from his own folly, we must surely 
pity. 20. Napoleon was an emperor, whom, if his ambition had not governed 
him, would have adorned the age which he lived in. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the objective caet 
in the following sentences: — 

M o D E L 1. — " Cast thy bread upon the waters." 

Bread. — Cast bread. — "Bread" is a common noun, in the singular number, 
third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, being the 
object of the action expressed by the verb cast, according to Rule IV., "A 
noun or a pronoun, etc." 

Waters. — Upon waters. — * Waters" is a common noun, in the plural num- 
ber, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the objective case, being 
the object of the relation denoted by the preposition upon, according to 
Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Keep company with good men and you will increase the number. 2. As 
sircumstances alter cases, so time and chance alter circumstances. 3. The 
pride of science is humble, when compared with the pride of ignorance. 4. 
The caravan traveled many miles without finding water. 5. Youth can be 
moulded into any shape, at pleasure, like soft clay. 6. A continual drop- 
ping of water hollows out a stone. 7. Riches certainly make themselves 
wings. 8. The bell strikes one. "We take no note of time but from its loss. 
9. Go to the ant, thou sluggard; consider her ways, and be wise. 10. Wash- 
ington was appointed commander-in-chief of the American forces. 

II. Quoth the raven, " Never more." 12. Go forth beneath the open skies 
and list to Nature's teachings. 13. One murder makes a villain; millions, a 
hero. 14. Out of thine own mouth will I judge thee. 15. Bring me the 
prisoner, and await my summons to re-appear. 16. The thing is right ac- 
cording to the laws of the Medes and Persians, which alter not. 17. The 
Roman Senate appointed Cincinnatus Dictator. 18. Immense blocks of 
marble, weighing several tons, were displaced. 19. The hunters encamped 
at night near the peaceful waters of the broad lake. 20. The price of the 
articles was increased many dollars by the war. 

"Anguish of mind has driven thousands to suicide: anguish of body, none. 
This proves that the health of the mind is of far more consequence to our 
happiness than the health of the body, although both are deserving of much 
more attention than either of them receives." 



RULE V.- — APPOSITION — NOTES. 145 



RULE V. — APPOSITION. 

A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with another is 
in the same case. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is put in apposition, when it is used 
with another noun or pronoun to explain it, or when it is added 
or repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, " Franklin, the philosopher, 
will ever he remembered. " — " Spring, joyous spring, has come." — 
"We, the people of the United States." 

2. The proper name and the common name of an object are often 
used together, the common name being in apposition with the proper. 
They may, however, be parsed together as a complex proper noun; 
as, " The steamer Atlantic has arrived." — " The city of London is on 
the river Thames." 

Although one of the words forming a complex proper noun is the 
principal word, and the other or others are in apposition with it, 
yet they should be parsed together as one word : thus, in the 
sentence, " Louis Napoleon Bonaparte became emperor in 1852," 
Louis is the principal noun, and Napoleon and Bonaparte are in 
apposition with it, but all should be parsed as one word. 

A title prefixed to a proper name is in apposition with it, but the 
two should be parsed together, as one word: thus, in the sentence, 
" Senator Webster opposed the measure," Senator is put in apposi- 
tion with Webster, but the two should be parsed as one word. 

3. A noun may sometimes be parsed as being in apposition with 
the whole or a part of a sentence; as, "The British Parliament 
claimed the right to tax the Americans without their consent, — a prin- 
ciple which the colonists opposed." 

4. As is often followed by a noun denoting office, employment, 
etc., which is put in apposition with a preceding noun or pronoun ; 
as, " Bonaparte's abilities as a general, caused him to be feared by 
his enemies." 

The word following as is not always in apposition with the pre 
ceding noun or pronoun, but is sometimes the subject, or the object, 
of a verb understood: thus, "He valued his character as his life" 
means, "He valued his character as he valued his life." 

When the noun in apposition is an equivalent as well as an ex- 
planatory term, it is sometimes introduced by the conjunction or; as, 
" The puma, or the American lion, is found in Brazil." 

13 



146 RULE V. — NOTES EXERCISES. 

5. When a noun in the possessive case is in apposition with 
another in the same case, the sign is usually suffixed only to that 
noun which immediately precedes that limited by the possessive; 
as, " 'Death on the Pale Horse' is one of the best of the artist West's 
paintings/' 

6. A noun may sometimes be in apposition with a pronoun in 
the possessive; in such instances the sign of the possessive is 
omitted; as, "Irving's 'Life of Washington' is Ms best work as 
an author." 

7. Transitive verbs of naming, choosing, etc., are sometimes fol- 
lowed in the active voice by two objectives, the jirst of which is the 
object of the action expressed by the verb, and the other is put in 
apposition with it; as, "The English government appointed Wel- 
lington commander of their forces in Spain." 

8. A plural term used for emphasis is sometimes put in apposition 
with the particulars which it represents; as, "Happiness, honor, 
wealth, all were lost." 

9. A distributive word, or several particulars, are sometimes used 
to explain a general term, and are put in apposition with it: thus, 
" They disputed every one with bis neighbor." — " The inhabitants, 
men, women, and children, rallied to the defence of the city." 

10. In the expression, " They love each other," each is in appo- 
sition with they, the meaning being, " They, each, Love the other." 

Also in the sentence, " They love one another," one is in apposi- 
tion with they, the meaning being, " They, one, love the other." 

11. Words in apposition must agree in case, but not necessarily 
in number, person, or gender; as, " We, the people of the United 
States." 

E xe rcise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "The insult was offered to rny friend, he whom I loved as a 
brother." 

This sentence is incorrect, because he, which is a pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, is put in apposition with the noun friend, which is in the 
objective case, being the object of the relation denoted by the preposition to; 
but, according to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun put in apposition with 
another is in the same case." Therefore he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, " The insult was offered to my friend, him whom I loved 
as a brother." 

1. The purchased articles were left at Bailey's, the jeweler's. 2. My 



RULE V # — EXERCISES. 147 

friend, him who you heard lecture, has left the city. 3. Richard the Lion- 
hearted found the government of England in John's, his brother's, hands. 
4. The man, him who the officer punished, threatened revenge. 5. Such 
conduct to your friend, he who has done so much to aid you, is ungrate- 
ful. 6. Help the poor, needy, and wretched, they who so much need assist- 
ance. 7. Milton the poet lived during Cromwell's the Protector's adminis- 
tration. 8. The dress-maker, her whom you recommended, has disappointed 
me. 9. The minstrel came, him who the earl invited. 10. I went to see my 
cousin Charles, he who has been sick so long. 

Exercise II. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in apposition in the 
following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "Washington appointed John Jay Chief Justice." 
Chief Justice. — John Jay Chief Justice. — " Chief Justice" is a complex 
proper noun, in the singular number, third person, and of the masculine gen- 
der; it is in the objective case, being put in apposition with the noun John Jay 
which is the object of the action expressed by the verb appointed; according 
to Rule V., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " General, captain, private, all were hurried into the same grave." 
All. — General, captain, private, all.— -" All" is a pronominal adjective, repre- 
senting the nouns, general, captain, and private, in the plural number, third 
person, and masculine gender; it is in the nominative case, being put in appo- 
sition with general, captain, and private, according to Note under Rule V., 
"A plural term used for emphasis is sometimes put in apposition with the 
particulars which it represents." 

I. How wonderful is Death! — Death and his brother Sleep. 2. "When our 
actions do not, our fears make us traitors. 3. Shakspeare calls the world 
a stage, and men and women players. 4. The city, cannon, stores, every 
thing fell into the hands of the victorious army. 5. Athens, once the eye 
of Greece, mother of arts and eloquence, lay before us. 

6. The labors of Hamilton as a statesman were invaluable. 7. Washington 
resigned all the power which his position as commander-in-chief gave him, 
and retired to private life; an act which will always be admired. 8. De- 
catur destroyed the frigate Philadelphia in the harbor of Tripoli. 9. The 
sea, the sea, the open sea! the blue, the fresh, the ever free! 10. The wal- 
rus, or sea-horse, is found in the Arctic regions. 

II. Beautiful Venice ! bride of the sea. 12. Ye men of Israel, why 
marvel ye at this? 13. The old oaken bucket, the iron-bound bucket, 
the moss-covered bucket, which hung in the well. 14. Aye, call it holy 
ground, — the place where the patriot falls. 15. The troops seemed to vie 
with each other in the performance of their duties. 



148 RULE VI. — SAME CASE AFTER VERB — NOTES. 

16. Out of this nettle, danger, we pluck this flower, safety. 17. Hail Co- 
lumbia! happy land! Hail ye heroes! heaven-bom band. 18. The little 
dogs and all, — Tray, Blanche, and Sweetheart, see thej T all bark at me. 19. 
Farewell, a word that hath been and must be. 

20. Caledonia! stern and wild, 
Meet nurse for a poetic child ! 
Land of brown heath and shaggy wood; 
Land of the mountain and the flood ! 

RULE VI. — SAME CASE AFTER VERB. 

A noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, 
or a verb in the passive voice, is in the same case as the 
noun or the pronoun preceding the verb and meaning the 
same person or thing. 

NOTES. 

1. A noun or a pronoun is after or before a verb or a participle 
when it follows or precedes the verb or the participle in the natural 
order of thought or expression. 

2. The verbs which most frequently separate nouns and pronouns 
meaning the same person or thing are be, become, appear, grow, etc.; 
intransitive verbs denoting motion, place, position, etc.; and the 
verbs call, choose, consider, make, etc., in the passive voice. 

3. A noun or a pronoun may agree in case with a phrase, a 
clause, or a sentence, placed before the verb and meaning the same 
person or thing; as, " To love our neighbor as ourselves, is a divine 
command." 

The expression following the verb or the participle may be a 
phrase, a clause, or a sentence; as, " It is difficult to be always con- 
sistent" 

4. If the conjunction that is used to connect a finite intransitive 
verb with a transitive verb preceding, the noun or the pronoun fol- 
lowing the intransitive verb is in the nominative case; as, "The 
man supposed (that) it was he who came last." 

When the intransitive verb is in the infinitive mode and follows 
a transitive verb which has an object mentioned, the noun or the pro- 
noun following the intransitive verb is in the objective case; as, "The 
man supposed it to be him who came last." 

5. The noun or the pronoun following an intransitive or a passive 
participle which limits the possessive case of a noun or a pronoun 



RULE VI. — JTOTES EXERCISES. 149 

placed before it, is in the nominative case independent; as, "The 
fact of its being he, need not alter your opinion." 

Although this mode of expression is used by the best writers, it 
seems preferable to avoid it when possible: thus, " The fact that it 
is he, need not alter your opinion." 

Exekcise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " No one doubted that it was him who deserved the prize." 
This sentence is incorrect, because him is a personal pronoun in the 
objective case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the nominative 
case, being the subject of the verb was; but, according to Rule VI., "A 
noun or a pronoun placed after an intransitive verb, etc." Therefore him 
should be he, and the sentence should be, "No one doubted that it was ho 
who deserved the prize." 

2. — "No one doubted it to be he who deserved the prize." 
This sentence is incorrect, because he is a personal pronoun in the nomi- 
native case, referring to the same person as it, which is in the objective case, 
being the object of the action denoted by the verb doubted; but, according to 
Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." Therefore he should be him, and the 
sentence should be, " No one doubted it to be him who deserved the prize." 

1. It seemed impossible to be him who committed the act. 2. It appears 
difficult to determine whom it was, who first discovered the power of steam. 
3. Who do you suppose him to be? 4. If I were him or her, I would improve 
the opportunities presented to me. 5. It matters not whom your associates 
may be, their influence has its effect upon you. 6. The court had no doubt 
of its being them who were guilty. 7. The visitor was not the man whom 
he seemed to be. 8. The company could not believe it was him, who had so 
lately been in such great danger. 9. We can no longer doubt its being 
John's who made the discovery. 10. It was him who issued the order, 
although the people for a long time disbelieved it to be he. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the nouns and the pronouns in the same case after 
the verb in the following sentences : — 

Model. — "A man's house is his castle." 

Castle. — Rouse is castle. — "Castle" is a common noun, in the singular 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case 
after the intransitive verb is, because it denotes the same thing as the pre- 
ceding noun house, which is in the nominative ease, being the subject of the 
verb is, according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun placed after an 

intransitive verb, etc." 

13* 



150 RULE VII. — PERSONAL PRONOUNS — NOTES. 

I. Beauty is truth, and truth beauty. 2. Every man is the architect 
of his own fortune. 3. From this battle the Romans retired victors. 4. 
He blesses his stars, and thinks it luxury. 5. Brevity is the soul of wit. 
6. Men are but children of a larger growth. 7. A sorrow's crown of sorrow, is 
remembering happier things. 8. To conceal art is the perfection of art. 9. 
Our birth is nothing but our death begum 10. Prayer should be the key 
of the day and the lock of the night. 

II. Henry VII. was crowned King of England on the battle-field of Bos- 
worth. 12. The shortest answer is, doing a thing. 13. I am sure care's an 
enemy to life. 14. When I was a child, I spake as a child; but when I 
became a man, I put away childish things. 15. Miserable comforters are ye 
all. 16. Trifles, light as air, are, to the jealous, confirmations strong as proofs 
of holy writ. 17. Though this may be play to you, it is death to us. 18. 
Let it be deemed the highest honor to be called an American citizen. 19. 
Webster and Ashburton were appointed commissioners to settle the dis- 
puted boundary question. 

20. All nature is but art, unknown to thee; 

All chance, direction, which thou canst not see; 
All discord, harmony not understood; 
All partial evil, universal good. 

RULE VII. PERSONAL PRONOUNS. 

A personal pronoun agrees with the noun which it repre- 
sents, in number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 
1. The following are exceptions : — 

I. We, which is a pronoun in the plural number, is sometimes 
used by authors, .editors, reviewers, etc., to represent a noun in the 
singular. 

II. You, etc., which are in the plural number, are generally used 
instead of thou, etc., to represent nouns in the singular ; as, " Chaises, 
have you completed your task V 

III. It, which is of the neuter gender, is often used instead of he 
or she to represent the names of infants, animals, etc.; as, "The 
child had not yet recovered from its fright." 

IV. He or she is used instead of it, to represent the name of a 
thing without sex, which has been personified; as, " Pleasure deludes 
Iter followers with many a flattering promise." 



EULE ^TII. — NOTES. 151 

2. "When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective 
noun are considered collectively, the noun should be represented by a 
pronoun in the singular number, and of the neuter gender; as, " Con- 
gress holds its meetings in the capital of the United States." 

When the objects composing the unit denoted by a collective noun 
are considered separately, the noun should be represented by a 
pronoun in the plural number, and of the same gender as the indi- 
viduals that form the collection; as, "The party were quarreling 
among themselves at the time of their capture." 

The collectives many, few, dozen, score, etc., preceded by a, are repre- 
sented by pronouns in the plural; as, "A great many lost their lives in 
their attempts to capture the fort, but a few effected their entrance." 

3. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns taken together 
and connected by and, should be in the plural number; as, " Gene- 
rals Worth and Twiggs united their armies to make the attack." 

Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and ex- 
pressing only one person or thing, are represented by a pronoun in 
the singular; as, "The celebrated painter and artist died before he 
reached Rome." 

Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, every, no, or a similar distributive, are considered 
separately, and are represented by a pronoun in the singular; as, 
" Every act, every word, every thought, has its effect upon our 
character." 

Two nouns connected by as well as, but not, and also, etc. belong 
to different propositions, and a pronoun is used to represent the first 
noun only; as, "James, as well as his brothers, was there, for I saw 
Mm." 

4. A pronoun which represents two or more nouns in the singular 
connected by or or nor, should be in the singular; as, " Either James 
or William has failed to do his duty." 

When one of the nouns connected by or or nor is in the plural, the 
pronoun representing them should be plural ; and the plural noun 
should be placed nearest to the pronoun; as, "Neither the captain 
nor his men were aware of their danger." 

5. A noun in the singular preceded by many a is represented by 
a pronoun in the singular; as, "Many a boy neglects his oppor- 
tunities for improvement." 

It may be represented by a pronoun in the plural, but not in the 
same clause, or member; as, "Though many a warning was given, 
he disregarded them all." 



152 RULE VII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

6. In the singular number, second person, the singular or the 
plural form of the pronoun should be used throughout the sentence 
to represent the same person; as, "I can not forget that thou wast 
my friend, and I will not repay you [thee] with ingratitude." 

7. A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or 
pronouns of different persons connected by and, is in the first person 
if one of the words which it represents is in the first person; as, 
"He and I {we) are going to our homes." 

If none of the nouns is in the first person,' the pronoun is in 
the second person, if one of the nouns which it represents is in the 
second person ; as, " You and he (you) failed in your efforts." 

8. A noun which is either masculine or feminine is usually repre- 
sented by a pronoun in the masculine; as, " A parent corrects the 
child whom he loves." 

9. Nouns in the singular number, but of different genders, con- 
nected by or or nor, can not be represented by a single pronoun; a 
separate pronoun must be used to represent each noun; as, "The boy 
or girl has lost his or her pen;" this is inelegant, and would be 
better thus: " The boy has lost his pen, or the girl has lost hers J' 

10. The gender of a pronoun representing two or nnre nouns of 
different genders, connected by and, can not be determined; as, 
" The boy and the girl lost their way." 

11. The pronoun it is used to represent a noun or a pronoun in 
either number, in any person, or of any gender, — also a sentence or 
a part of a sentence; or it may be used indefinitely, that is, without 
representing any person or thing; as "It is men, not money, that we 
want." — "7<{was Queen Isabella who first aided Columbus." — "We 
are often mistaken, but we seldom acknowledge it." — "It snowed all 
day." — "They roughed it in the woods and led a jolly life." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " Congress passed the bill before they adjourned." 
This sentence is incorrect, because they, which is a pronoun in the plural 
number, is used to represent the collective noun Congress, which is used as 
the name of a number of objects considered collectively; but, according to 
Note under Rule VII., "When the objects composing a unit, etc." There- 
fore they should be it, and the sentence should be, " Congress passed the 
bill before it adjourned." 

2. — " Every officer and every private endeavored to do their duty." 

This sentence is incorrect, because their, which is a pronoun in the plural 



KULE VII f— EXEECISES. 153 

number, is used to represent the two nouns officer and private, which are 
connected by and and are preceded by every ; but, according to Note under 
Rule VII., " Two or more nouns in the singular, connected by and and pre- 
ceded by each, etc." Therefore their should be his, and the sentence should 
be, " Every officer and every private endeavored to do his duty." 

3. — " You and I must be obedient to your teachers." 

This sentence is incorrect, because your, which is a pronoun in the second 
person, is used to represent the pronoun Jin the first person, and you in the 
second person, connected by and; but, according to Note under Rule VII., 
"A pronoun in the plural representing two or more nouns or pronouns of 
different persons connected by and, is, etc." Therefore your should be our, 
and the sentence should be, "You and I must be obedient to our teachers." 

I. Neither the boy nor the girl expressed his regret for the accident. 2. 
May your life be always as free from care as it was in thy youth. 3. You 
and your friends cannot always have their wishes gratified. 4. A few of the 
leaders were arrested for his share in the plot. 5. Many an American is not 
aware of their advantages over the citizens of other countries. 6. The pupils 
or his teacher were to be blamed for the disorder. 7. The officer or his secre- 
tary made the mistake, and they received much censure for it. 8. Columbus, 
as well as his brother, felt confident that they would succeed in his enter- 
prise. 9. "When we discover an error or a fault in our conduct, we should 
endeavor to correct them. 10. The course of the army led them through the 
best portion of the country. 

II. The jury was unanimous in their opinion regarding the guilt of the 
prisoner. 12. Neither talent nor riches can alone give happiness to those who 
possess it. 13. Canst thou deny the truth of the charge now brought against 
you? 14. James, you and I can be obedient to your teacher, even if you can 
not perform all of our duties. 15. Neither Nelson nor the officers under hi3 
command failed to do all in his power to defeat the enemy. 16. Every Sena- 
tor and Representative receives a compensation for their services. 17. The 
great philosopher and statesman bequeathed their wealth to their son. 18. The 
American army and the British encamped near each other in its winter 
quarters. 19. The committee, every member being present, differed in its 
opinion respecting the justice of the proposed law. 20. The boy and his 
sister lost his way in the depths of the forest, and were with difficulty rescued 
from danger. 

Exercise II. — Parse the personal pronouns in the following sen- 
tences : — 

Model 1. — " Dost thou try to be consistent in all things?" 

Thou (person addressed). — Thou dost try. — "Thou" is a personal pro- 



154 RULE VIII. — RELATIVE PRONOUNS — NOTES. 

noun, in the singular number, second person, and of the masculine or the femi- 
nine gender, because the name of the person addressed is, with which it 
agrees, according to Rule VII., "A personal pronoun agrees, etc." ; it is in the 
nominative case, being the subject of the verb dost try, according to Rule I., 
"A noun or a pronoun which is, etc." 

2. — "Few men are admired by their servants." 

Their. — Men their servants. — "Their" is a personal pronoun, in the plural 
number, third person, and of the masculine gender, because the noun men is, 
with which it agrees, according to Rule VII., "A personal pronoun agrees, 
etc." ; it is in the possessive case, and limits the noun servants, according to 
Rule III., "A noun or a pronoun in the possessive case, etc." 

I. Goldsmith was a poet, naturalist, and historian, who touched nothing 
that he did not adorn. 2. All men think all men mortal but themselves. 
3. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what thy right hand 
doeth. 4. The council disagreed in their opinions of the law proposed for the 
punishment of the Protestants. 5. The captain and the crew were exhausted 
by their continued efForts to keep the vessel in her direct course. 6. The 
troops took their appointed stations and patiently awaited the attack. 7. 
The army laid waste the country, and desolation marked its course. 8. And 
what is the worth of time? Ask death-beds; they can tell. 9. When Freedom 
from her mountain height unfurled her standard to the air. 10. The queen 
seated herself upon the throne which had been prepared for her. 

II. It is more blessed to give than to receive. 12. Boast not thyself of to- 
morrow ; for thou knowest not what a day may bring forth. 13. As the sun 
went down over the still lake, his last beams looked on a mournful spectacle. 
14. My son, if sinners entice thee, consent thou not. 15. No man knows 
anything of himself until he is tried, and then his virtues or his vices show 
themselves. 16. This is his work, the greatest sculptor of the age. 17. The 
embassy returned to the court, prepared to deliver its report on the condition 
of the country which it had visited. 18. Ah me! they little know how 
dearly I abide that boast so vain. 19. The English, as well as the French, 
suffered in consequence of their exposed condition before the besieged city. 

RULE VIII. RELATIVE PRONOUNS. 

A relative pronoun agrees with its antecedent in num- 
ber, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 
1. Who is used when reference is made to persons, or to things 
which are personified; as, "Thou sun, who rulest the day!" — " He 
who knows every thing, is often deceived." 



RULE ♦'III. NOTES. 155 

2. Which is used when reference is made to inferior animals, to 
infants, and to things without life; as, " Sweet are the songs of the 
birds which sing in the groves." — " The child which was lost, haa 
been found." — "Avoid avarice, which is a mean vice." 

Which is also used when the objects composing the unit denoted 
by a collective noun are referred to collectively; as, "The mob which 
filled the streets, seemed bent on violence." 

3. Who, which, and what are sometimes used without referring to 
any antecedent; as, "Who saw the accident? I can not tell who 
saw it." 

When so used they are not relative, but interrogative pronouns 
(P. 40) ; and in parsing them as such, no rule of syntax is to be 
given except the rule for case. 

4. When a proper name of a person is used merely as a word, or 
to denote character, it is represented by which, and not by who ; as, 
"We should imitate the example set by Washington, which is a 
name dear to every American." 

5. That is used instead of who or which in the following in- 
stances : — 

I. After an adjective or an adverb in the superlative degree; as, 
" He read the best books that could be procured." 

II. After the adjective same; as, "Others share the same diffi- 
culties in study that we encounter." 

III. After who used interrogatively; as, u Who, that indulges in 
vice, can be happy ?" 

IY. After two or more antecedents which separately require who 
and which; as, " No man or beast that ventured forth, escaped." 

V. After all, every, etc., and similar antecedents limited in mean- 
ing by the relative clause following; as, "All that heard him, were 
pleased." 

VI. After the personal pronoun it used indefinitely ; as, "B was 
he that committed the fault." 

The use of that instead of who or which is determined principally 
by euphony; therefore it may be correctly used in other positions 
than those named above. 

6. The rules which determine the number and the gender of the 
personal pronouns, apply also to the relative pronouns. (Eule VII., 
Notes 4, 5, etc.) 

7. A relative having antecedents of different persons, agrees in 
person with the antecedent nearest to it; as, "You axe a, man who 
has great power." — " You, who are a man of great mind, are 
respected." 



156 RULE VIII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

8. Every relative should be placed near its antecedent, in order to 
prevent all doubt as to the meaning intended: thus, "The general 
ordered his men to sleep on their arms, who knew the treachery 
of the enemy," should be, " The general who knew the treachery 
of the enemy, etc." 

9. A relative should not be used to represent an adjective or a 
' verb: thus, "He resolved that he would be truthful, which is a trait 

aM admire," should be, " He resolved, etc., for truthfulness is a 
trait, etc." 

10. The antecedent of a relative is sometimes omitted; as, "(He) 
Who commands himself, commands the whole world." 

11. The relative is sometimes improperly omitted; as, " The good 
{which) men do is often buried with them." 

12. What used as a relative, and the compound relatives, never 
have an antecedent mentioned, but, in meaning, each is equivalent 
to an antecedent and a relative. 

13. What is often incorrectly used for the conjunction that ; as, 
" I do not know but what [that] there is truth in your statement." 

14. Whom and which should generally follow the prepositions, but 
should precede the verbs, by which they are governed ; — that always 
precedes ; as, " The difficulties with which he contended." — " The 
same difficulties that you experienced, happened to me." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or tho 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "The horse, who is a noble animal, ranks next to man." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who is used to agree with its 
antecedent the noun horse, which is the name of an animal inferior to man ; 
but, according to Note under Rule VIIL, ''Which is used when reference is 
made to inferior animals, etc." Therefore who should be which, and the sen- 
tence should be, "The horse, which is a noble animal, ranks next to man." 

2. — "Newton was the greatest philosopher whom England ever produced." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative whom is used after greatest, 
which is an adjective in the superlative degree; but, according to Note under 
Rule VIII., "That is used instead of who or which after an adjective or an 
adverb in the superlative degree." Therefore whom should be that, and the ' 
sentence should be, "Newton was the greatest philosopher that England 
ever produced." 

3. — " He can not associate with the virtuous who is vile." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the relative who is separated from its 
antecedent, the pronoun he, and thereby produces doubt as to the meaning 



RULE VIII. — EXERCISES. 157 

intended j but, according to Note under R,ule VIII., "Every relative should 
be placed, etc." Therefore who should be placed near its antecedent, the pro- 
noun he, and the sentence should be, " He who is vile, can not associate with 
the virtuous." 

I. All which we hope for, is sometimes denied to us. 2. I do not know 
but what it is best that we are ignorant of what is in store for us. 3. Even in 
the midst of the flames, the boy kept the position which his father had placed 
him in. 4. Even the little, man wants here below, is sometimes withheld. 
5. The king issued his edict against the Catholics, who was a Protestant. 6 V All 
who perform their duties faithfully, gain the respect of their friends. 7. The 
army who was under the command of the Emperor, was successful in every 
battle. 8. The companions whom he associated with, debased his mind, and 
corrupted his morals. 9. The traveler ga^e an amusing account of the per- 
sons and animals whom he had seen. 10. Neither wealth nor talent, who is 
so much envied, can alone bring happiness. 

II. The task was too difficult for the boy, which had been assigned to the 
class. 12. The prisoner was one of the same party who was tried before for 
the same offence. 13. He could not recollect the passage where the mistake 
was found. 14. Washington appears to have had no fears but what the cause 
of the Americans would finally triumph. 15. The army who was besieged, 
threw up entrenchments during the night, and was thereby saved from 
defeat. 16. It could not have been him which the speaker intended to 
reprove. 17. The money they raised for the support of the poor, was never 
applied to them. 18. A man that hath friends, must show himself friendly. 
19. Who loves a garden, loves a green-house too. 20. Give sorrow words; 
the grief who does not speak, breaks the heart. 

Exercise II. — Parse the relative pronouns in the following sen- 
tences :— 

Model 1. — " Give me what this ribbon bound." 

What. — Give what — bound what. — " What" is a relative pronoun, and in 
meaning includes both relative and antecedent (thing which) ; it is in the 
singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender, because its ante- 
cedent (not mentioned) is, with which it agrees, according to Rule VIII, "A 
relative pronoun, etc."; it is in the objective case, being the object of the 
action expressed by the verb give, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pro- 
noun which is the object, etc." — ; it is also the object of the action expressed 
by the verb bound, according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — " The reign of William and Mary, who succeeded James II., was an 
important one in English history." 

14 



158 EULE VIII. — EXEECISES. 

Who. — William and Mary who succeeded. — "Who" is a relative pronoun, in 
the plural number, third person, according to Note under Rule VIII., "A 
pronoun having two or more antecedents connected by and, etc."; its gender 
can not be determined, because its antecedents connected by and are of dif- 
ferent genders, according to Note under Rule VIII., " The gender of a pro- 
noun, having two or more antecedents, etc."; — it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb succeeded, according to Rule L, "A noun or a 
pronoun, etc." 

3: — " Whoever it was that committed the error, is deserving of reproof." 
Whoever. — Whoever is — it was whoever. — "Whoever" is a compound relative 
pronoun, in meaning equivalent to any one toho; — it is in the singular num- 
ber, third person, and of the masculine or the feminine gender, because its 
antecedent (not mentioned) is, with which it agrees, according to Rule VIII. j 
— " A relative pronoun agrees, etc." ; it is in the nominative case, being the 
subject of the verb is, by Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc."; — it is also in 
the nominative case after the verb toas, because it denotes the same person as 
the pronoun it, which is in the nominative case, being the subject of the verb 
wus; according to Rule VI., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

I. Our gratitude is due to those who have endeavored to assist us in our 
efforts to acquire knowledge. 2. Whatever will tend to enlarge our minds 
and to elevate our nature, should receive our attention. 3. That is not 
always right which at first seems right. 4. You, who are possessed of ad- 
vantages so superior to those of your associates, should be thankful. 5. All 
that are so disposed, can make their influence for good felt by those around 
them. 6. The general did what he could for the comfort of his men during 
their long march. 7. Not a habitation nor an inhabitant that lay in the 
route, was spared. 8. Whoever will, may drink from the fountain of know- 
ledge. 9. Who, that gazes upon the myriads of stars which sparkle in the 
vaults of heaven, can doubt the existence of a divine being? 10. Those 
powers of mind which one enjoys, another may want. 

II. Washington said : " I hope I shall always possess firmness and virtue 
enough to maintain what I consider the most enviable of all titles, the 
character of an ' honest man.' " 12. What dost thou see, lone watcher on 
the tower? 13. Labor is the price which is set upon every thing that is 
valuable. 14. Flowers have been called day-stars, that open their eyes to 
twinkle with the morn. 15. Oh! how wretched is that poor man who hangs 
on princes' favors ! 16. He mourns the dead, who lives as they desire. 17. 
The strongest and the fiercest spirit that fought in heaven, now made fiercer 
by despair, stood up. 18. Be not prodigal of time : we know not what a day 
may bring forth. 19. Heaven were not heaven if we knew what it were. 



EULE IX. — AETICLES — NOTES. 159 

20. It is not what people earn, but what they save, that makes them rich; it 
is not what they read, but what they remember, that makes them learned; it 
not what they profess, but what they practice, that makes them good. 



RULE IX.— ARTICLES. 

An article relates to the noun which it limits in 



NOTES. 

1. The can relate to a noun in either the singular or the plural 
number; as, The book; the multitudes ; the three vessels. 

A or an can relate to a noun in the singular only, or to a collective 
noun; as, A book; a cold day; an excited multitude. 

2. The is used before a noun in the singular number regarded as 
the name of a whole species, or class ; as, " The lion is called the king 
of beasts." — " T he palm-tree grows only in warm climates." 

The is used before each of several particulars included in a gene- 
ral term or class; as, "Nouns have three genders; the masculine, 
the feminine, and the neuter." 

3. The, placed before a proper noun, renders the proper noun 
common ; as, " The Cicero of America." A or an thus placed may 
have the same effect ; as, " Every poet is not a Milton or a Byron." 

Except when the is used to show that a particular object is meant ; 
as, " The Pacific was lost at sea, and all on board perished." 

4. The article should not be used before the names of virtues, 
vices, materials, sciences, etc., or before common names applied in 
their widest sense to persons; as, " The study of mathematics is use- 
ful." — "Immense fields of coal were discovered." — "Man is guided 
by reason ; the brute, by instinct." 

5. The article is omitted before the name of a species included in 
a class: thus, "The dog is a faithful kind of an animal, 1 ' should 
be, ' ' The dog is a faithful kind of animal." 

The article should be omitted before titles or names used merely 
as such, or used simply as words: thus, "The title of a duke was 
bestowed upon Wellington," should be, " The title of duke, etc." — 
"The Jews called their priests the Rabbis," should be, "The Jews 
called their priests Rabbis." 

6. The article never relates to nouns limited by the pronominal 
adjectives any, each, either, every, much, neither, no, none, some, this, 
these, that, those, — or by pronouns in the possessive case. 



160 RULE IX. — NOTES. 

7. The sometimes relates to an adjective used as a noun; as, "The 
poor ye have always with you/' 

The article in such constructions may also be parsed as relating 
to some noun understood after the adjective. 

8. When an article is used before the comparative or the super- 
lative degree of an adjective, it relates to a noun mentioned or under- 
stood after the adjective; as, "I said a better soldier, not a wiser 
{soldier)." — "Of friends prove to be the truest {friend)." 

The has the force of an adverb when used before an adverb in the 
comparative or the superlative degree; as, " The more intelligent we 
become, the less are we satisfied with our knowledge." 

9. A has sometimes the force of a preposition ; as, " The machinery 
was set a going." 

10. An adjective expressing plurality is sometimes preceded by 
the indefinite article ; as, "A dozen birds were killed, but only a Jew 
of them could be found." 

In such instances the article relates to the adjective used as a 
noun, and the adjective limits the noun following; or, the expression 
including the article and the adjective may be parsed together as an 
adjective. The former mode of parsing is preferable. 

11. The article is used before Jew, little, and other adjectives ex- 
pressing a similar meaning, to imply some: thus, "A little allow- 
ance was made for his failure," implies that some allowance was 
made, etc. "The Jew who were present heard it," implies that some 
heard it. 

The article is omitted before few, little, etc., to imply none, or not 
many, or not much: thus, "Little allowance was made for his 
failure," implies that none, or not much allowance was made, etc. 
"Few heard it," implies that none, or not many heard it. 

12. The article is used only with the first of several adjectives 
connected expressing different qualities, and relating to but one 
noun; as, "A red, white, and blue Jlag was hoisted"; — this means 
that one flag of these three colors was hoisted. 

When several adjectives connected relate to the same noun men- 
tioned or understood more than once, and meaning different persons 
or things, the article should be used with each adjective: thus, "A 
red, a white, and a blue flag," means three flags of different colors. 
"A sweet and sour apple," should be, "a sweet and a sour apple." 

13. If a comparison is expressed between two nouns referring to 
the same person or thing, the article should be used before the first 
noun only; as, "He is a better politician than lawyer." In thia 
sentence different qualifications of one person are compared. 



RULE IX. — NOTES — EXEECISES. 161 

If a comparison is expressed between two nouns referring to dif- 
ferent persons or things, the article should be used before each 
noun; as, "He is a better politician than a lawyer (is).'' In this 
sentence the same qualifications of different persons are considered. 

14. The article should be used before each of two or more nouns, 
having different constructions, or expressing direct contrast; it is 
also repeated for the sake of emphasis; as, "The day but not the 
hour was fixed/' — " The rich and the poor suffered alike." 

15. The article is placed before the noun to which it relates; as, 
A man ; the children ; an hour. 

16. An adjective, or an adjective qualified by an adverb, is some- 
times placed between the article and the noun to which it relates; 
as, A very intelligent man ; the little children. 

When the adjective is qualified by as, how, so, or too, the article 
is placed after the adjective; as, " How great a matter a little fire 
kindleth." 

17. The article is used before the following pronominal adjectives: 
— -few, former, first, latter, last, little, one, other, and same; as, "He 
will do neither the one thing nor the other." 

The article is used after the following pronominal adjectives: — 
all, both, many, such, or what; as, "Both the men were guilty." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " He is a better writer than a speaker." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used before each of the 
nouns speaker and iririter which refer to one person having different quali- 
fications compared; but, according to Note under Rule IX., "If a com- 
parison is expressed between two nouns referring to the same person or 
thing, etc." Therefore a should be omitted, and the sentence should be, " He 
is a better writer than speaker." 

2. — " The man wore a brown and a gray hat." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article a is used before the ad- 
jective gray, which is connected with the adjective brown, both of which 
express different qualities of the same thing; but, according to Note under 
Rule IX., "The article is used only with the first of several adjectives con- 
nected, etc." Therefore a should be omitted, and the sentence should be, 
"The man wore a brown and gray hat." 

3. — " The lady purchased a too great number of articles." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adjective great, which is qualified 
by the adverb too, is placed between the noun and the article which relates 

14* 



162 EULE IX. — EXERCISES. 

to the noun; but, according to Note under Rule IX., "When the adjective 
Is qualified by as, how, so, or too, the article, etc." Therefore a should be 
placed after the adjective great, and the sentence should be, "The lady pur- 
chased too great a number of articles." 

I. Franklin was no less a statesman than a philosopher. 2. A too great 
reward was given for so slight a service. 3. The word is a noun or verb 
according to its use. 4. The Russian and Italian people differ from each 
other in tbeir habits and customs. 5. No person shall be eligible to the office 
of a president who shall not have attained the age of thirty -five years. 6. An 
orange is more wholesome than pine-apple. 7. The hyena is a species of a 
dog. 8. A large and small book were offered to him as a reward for his 
industry. 9. The black and the white horse was injured by his fall. 10. 
As his misfortunes resulted from his own misconduct, he had the sympathy 
of a few of his friends. 

II. I would go a long ways to hear him speak. 12. The condor is one 
of the largest of the birds of prey. 13. Nouns have three cases; nomi- 
native, possessive, and objective. 14. He was asked to read the first, second, 
and third stanza. 15. A sonnet or epigram is much more difficult to com- 
pose than prose. 16. Cincinnatus laid aside the powers granted to him as a 
Dictator, and returned to his farm. 17. A little assistance was extended to 
the poor, although ample means were at hand to supply their wants. 18. 
Who shall decide, when the doctors disagree ? 19. The pupils did not wish 
to apply to their teacher the title of a Master. 20. The fourth and fifth 
pages were lost. 21. He is a just and a true man. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the articles in the following sentences : — 

Mod el. — "A rudely carved stone marked the place of his burial." 

A. — A stone. — "A" is the indefinite article; it relates to the noun stone, 

which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article relates, etc." 
The. — The place. — " The" is the definite article ; it relates to the noun place, 

which it limits in meaning, according to Rule IX., "An article relates, etc." 

When bad men combine, the good must associate; else they will fall, one 
by one, an unpitied sacrifice, in a contemptible struggle. 

Near yonder copse where once the garden smiled, 
And still where many a garden-flower grows wild, 
There, where a few torn shrubs the place disclose, 
The village preacher's modest mansion rose. 
A man he was to all the country dear, 
And passing rich with forty pounds a year. 



I 

EULE X. — ADJECTIVES — NOTES. 163 



RULE X. ADJECTIVES. 

-All adjective relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or limits. 

NOTES. 

1. An adjective may limit or describe a phrase, a clause, or a sen- 
tence; as, " That he did all in his power, is certain." 

An adjective sometimes describes the meaning of another ad- 
jective; as, An iron-gray horse. The two adjectives should be con- 
nected by a hyphen, thus forming a compound adjective. 

An adjective sometimes relates to a noun described or limited by 
another adjective, the noun and the latter adjective forming a com- 
plex noun; as, A bright little boy ; an intelligent young man. 

2. An adjective is sometimes used abstractly after a participle, or 
a verb in the infinitive mode, that is, without relating to any noun 
or pronoun; as, " To be honest is the best way of being trusted." 

3. Adjectives are sometimes used as nouns, especially when pre- 
ceded by the definite article, or by a pronominal adjective; as, " The 
vessel was tossed by the billows of the deep." — " None but the brave 
deserve the fair." — "All partial evil is universal good." 

4. When an adjective is used to express a comparison between two 
objects considered separately, the comparative degree should be 
used; as, " His mind was more mature than his body." 

When the comparative degree is used, if the objects compared 
belong to one and the same class, the latter term of comparison 
should never include the former: thus, " Shakspeare is more admired 
than any English poet," should be, " Shakspeare is more admired 
than any other English poet." 

5. When an adjective is used to express the highest or the lowest 
quality belonging to two or more objects considered as one class, the 
superlative degree should be used: as, "Although gold is the most 
valuable of metals, it is of the least real use." 

When the superlative degree is used, the latter term of the com- 
parison should always include the former: thus, " Shakspeare is the 
most admired of all the other English poets," should be, " Shakspeare 
is the most admired of all the English poets." 

6. Two signs of the comparative or of the superlative degree 
should never be used; thus, "The lesser evil," should be, "the less 
evil"; — " The most strictest sect," should be, "the strictest sect." 

7. In prose, an adjective should never be used instead of an adverb, 



164 RULE X. — NOTES. 

to qualify a verb, an adjective, or another adverb: thus, "He arose 
slow from the ground, and resumed his journey," should be, "He 
arose slowly, etc." 

In poetry, an adjective is sometimes used instead of an adverb ; 
as, "Slow rises merit, when by poverty oppressed," instead of 
"Slowly rises merit, etc." In the former sentence, slow is to be 
parsed as an adverb. 

8. When an adjective follows a finite verb, and is not followed by 
a noun or a pronoun mentioned or understood, it relates to the 
subject of the verb ; as, " The ice seemed to be as smooth as glass." 
— "He was pronounced guilty." — " The snow lies deep" 

9. An adjective expressing plurality must relate to a noun in the 
plural number: thus, "He stood six feet high," not, "He stood six 
foot high." — " A pole twenty feet long." 

Certain nouns, used collectively, retain the singular form when 
preceded by numeral adjectives expressing plurality; as, " A hun- 
dred head of cattle were sold." — "A fleet of twenty sail appeared." 

When a compound adjective is composed of a numeral and a noun, 
the latter is never made plural ; as, "A twenty-foot pole was used." 
■ — " The pocket-book contained two five-dollar notes." 

10. An adjective is generally placed before the noun, but after the 
pronoun to which it relates; as, An able lawyer. — "He is old and 
feeble" — " The groves were man's first temples." 

There are many exceptions to this rule of position, especially in 
poetry. In general, the adjective should be so placed that there can 
be no doubt as to what noun or pronoun it describes or limits. 

11. A pronominal or a numeral adjective precedes another ad- 
jective which describes the same noun; as, "The three dishonest 
clerks were arrested." — "That accomplished young lawyer greatly 
distinguished himself." 

12. When two numeral adjectives, one denoting unity, the other 
plurality, precede a noun, the noun is made plural, and the adjective 
denoting plurality is placed next to it; as, " The first three stanzas." 

If the first stanza of each of three poems were intended, it would 
be correct to say, " The three first stanzas." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or 
the note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " The hermit lived in the most strictest seclusion." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the adjective most strictest has two signs 
of the superlative degree (most and -est) ; but, according to Note under Rule X., 
"Two signs of the comparative or of the superlative degree should never be 



EULE X. — EXEECISES. 165 

used." Therefore most should be omitted, and the sentence should be, "The 
hermit lived in the strictest seclusion/' 

2. " This was more Wilson's case than any man's that ever wrote." 

This sentence is incorrect, because man, the latter term of the comparison, 
includes Wilson, the former; that is, they are not considered separately; but, 
according to Note under Rule X., "When the comparative degree is used, 
etc." Therefore other should be inserted before the noun man, and the sen- 
tence should be, " This was more Wilson's case than any other man's that 
ever wrote." 

1. His writings are remarkable chaste and clear. 2. Colleges afford more 
general and higher instruction than common schools. 3. Which is the most 
northern division of the Eastern Continent, Asia or Europe? 4. He seemed the 
best informed of any historian of the age in which he lived. 5. Few writers 
made hits which were more happier than his. 6. Education is more universal 
with the Caucasian than any race. 7. His language was so plain that I under- 
stood him the best of all others that spoke on the subject. 8. The words of 
the preacher were rather earnest, but suitably to the occasion. 9. The popu- 
lation of Russia is greater than that of any nation of Europe. 10. Our bodies 
should be kept more perpendicular than is customary with us. 11. The water 
is only five foot deep on the bar. 12. More superior advantages are nowhere 
offered. 13. The four last leaves were torn from the volume. 

14. The most robust and strongest of the two was the first to fade. 15. Pat- 
rick Henry was more eloquent than any orator in America. 16. The little 
child's new dress looked very neatly on her. 17. Some trisyllables have the 
former syllable accented, and the latter unaccented. 18. Of all other beings 
man has the best reason to be proud on account of his many privileges. 
19. Nothing grieved him so much as the ingratitude of the son whom he had 
loved so dear. 20. A farmer's life is most generally considered as more 
independent than any. 21. Two pound to the ton were all that could be 
obtained. 22. The word was parsed agreeable to the rules which govern 
such connections. 23. Of all other figures of speech irony should be the 
most carefully employed. 24. The more inland the towns were, the more 
healthier seemed their inhabitants. 25. The field yielded about twenty-five 
bushel to the acre. 26. He felt sorely on account of the loss. 27. Choose 
neither, rather than the least, of two evils. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the adjectives in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — " To receive the approbation of our friends is pleasant." 
Pleasant. — To receive the approbation of our friends (is) pleasant. — "Plea- 
Bant" is an adjective; it can be compared (pos. f>lea8ant, eomp. pleasanter, 
super, pleasantest) ; it is in the positive degree, and relates to the phrase, 



166 BULE X. — EXERCISES. 

To receive the approbation of our friends, which it limits according to Note 
under Rule X., "An adjective may limit, etc." 

2. — "A white-haired old man placed himself at their head." 

White-haired. — White-haired old man. — "White-haired" is a compound 
adjective; it can not be compared, and relates to the adjective old and the 
noun man used together as a complex noun; according to Note under 
Rule X., "An adjective sometimes relates to a noun described, etc." 

3. — " The New Zealand chiefs tattoo their faces." 

New Zealand. — New Zealand chiefs. — "New Zealand" is a proper noun 
used as an adjective; it can not be compared, and relates to the noun chiefs, 
which it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective relates, etc." 

Peace. — Lovely art thou, Peace ! and lovely are thy children, and lovely 
are the prints of thy footsteps in the green valleys. 

Blue wreaths of smoke rise among the trees, betraying the half-hidden cot- 
tage ; the eye contemplates well-thatched ricks and barns bursting with plenty. 

White houses peep through the trees; cattle stand cooling in the pool; the 
casement of the farm-house is covered with jessamine and honeysuckle; the 
stately green-house exhales the perfume of summer climates. 

The housewife's stores of bleached linen, whiter than snow, are laid up 
with fragrant herbs; they are the pride of the matron, the toil of many a 
winter's night. 

War. — The smoke rises not through the trees, for the honors of the grove 
are fallen, and the hearth of the cottage is cold; but it rises from villages 
burned with fire, and from warm ruins spread over the now naked plain. 

The groans of the wounded are in the hospitals, and by the roadside, and 
in every thicket; and the housewife's web, whiter than snow, is scarcely suffi- 
cient to stanch the blood of her husband and sons. 

Everything unholy and unclean comes abroad from its lurking-place, and 
deeds of darkness are done beneath the eye of day. The villagers no longer 
start at horrible sights ; the soothing rites of burial are denied, and human 
bones are tossed by human hands. 

Oh ! a dainty plant is the ivy green 

That creepeth o'er ruins old ! 
Of right choice food are his meals, I ween, 

In his cell so lone and cold. 
The walls must be crumbled, the stones decayed, 

To pleasure his dainty whim; 
And the mouldering dust that years have made, 

Is a merry meal for him. 



RULE XL — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES NOTES. 167 



RULE XI. — PRONOMINAL ADJECTIVES. 

A pronominal adjective relates to the noun which it 
limits, — or agrees with the noun which it represents, in 
number, person, and gender. 

NOTES. 

1. This and that refer to nouns in the singular number; these and 
those, to nouns in the plural; as, This man; these men. 

2. This and these refer definitely to what is near ; as, " This valley 
is very fruitful." 

That and those refer to what is distant, or to what is farther 
away than something else; as, " Those mountain-tops are covered 
with snow." 

In contrast, or when two things are named, this and these refer to 
the latter, and that and those, to the former; as, "Reason is superior 
to instinct; this (instinct) belongs to the brute, that (reason), toman." 

3. Them is sometimes incorrectly used for those: thus, " Them acts 
injured himself only/' should be, " Those acts, etc." 

4. Each refers singly to two or to more than two objects; as, 
"Each pupil in the class was present." 

5. Either and neither refer to one of two objects only. Either 
means one or the other of two objects, and neither means not either 
of two; as, " Two plans were proposed, but neither gained favor." 

Either is often improperly used formed: thus, "Tall oaks lined 
either side of the road," should be, " Tall oaks lined each side, etc." 

6. Every refers to each of more than two objects, and means all 
taken separately or singly; as, "Every good tree bringeth forth 
good fruit." 

Evo-y is sometimes used before a numeral adjective and a noun 
taken to denote a collective number or quantity; as, Every Jive 
weeks ; every three bushels. 

• 7. Another and one refer to nouns in the singular; as, One man, 
another man; other, to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, 
The other book; the other books. 

When they are used as nouns, they can be declined, another being 
in the singular only. 

8. Any refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural ; and is 
also used to denote strongly or emphatically some indefinite object ; 
as, "The powers of any man's mind are strengthened by use." 



168 ETJLE XI. — NOTES — EXEECISES. 

9. All refers to more than two objects, and includes them taken 
jointly; as, "All men can distinguish between good and evil." 

10. None, although strictly meaning no one, refers to nouns in 
the singular or in the plural; as, "A book was wanted, but none 
was to be found." — " Many boys were struck, but none of them 
were injured." 

11. Some denotes one or an indefinite portion, and refers to nouns 
in the singular or in the plural; as, u Some one must do the work." 
— " Some of the work was finished." 

12. Such denotes an object of the same nature as another, and 
refers to nouns in the singular or in the plural; as, "Such a sight 
was never witnessed before." 

13. Few, several, and many (except when immediately followed by 
a), refer to nouns in the plural. 

14. Which and what, and the compounds formed from them, refer 
to nouns in the singular or in the plural. 

15. A pronominal adjective is parsed as an adjective when the 
noun which it limits is mentioned; as, "Each boy's conduct was 
deserving of praise." 

A pronominal adjective may be parsed as a pronoun, that is, as 
representing a noun, when it is correctly used without an article, and 
the noun is not mentioned ; as, "Uachwas praised for his good conduct." 

An adjective is used as a noun when it describes or limits 
no noun mentioned, and has an article before it; as, "The many 
are not wise: a few were saved." — "The weary may here find 
rest." The noun, however, may be supplied, and weary, few, etc. 
may be parsed as adjectives. 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " These sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

This sentence is incorrect, because these, which is a demonstrative pro- 
nominal adjective in the plural, is used to refer to the noun sort, which is in 
the singular number; but, according to Note under Rule XI., "This and that 
refer, etc." Therefore these should be this, and the sentence should be, 
" This sort of animals is found only in warm climates." 

2. — " Either of the five men was considered qualified." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the distributive pronom. adjective either 
is used in referring to more than two objects; but, according to Note under 
Rule XL, "Either and neither refer, etc." Therefore either should be each, and 
the sentence should be, "Each of the five men was considered qualified." 



RULE XI. — EXERCISES. 169 

1. Neither of those three seems to know that their opinions are unjust. 2. 
Them sentiments should never be encouraged among youth. 3. That dif- 
ferent species of reptiles are not found in the same latitude. 4. On either 
side the soldiers displayed the greatest courage. 5. Neither side of a square 
is as long as a diagonal joining its opposite angles. 6. Those bad news 
spread like wild-fire. 7. He bade farewell to his friends and foes; with those 
he left his peace, and with these his love. 8. Any one of the two subjects 
would have been very interesting. 9. These class of minerals is found only 
in the mountainous regions in the western part of South America. 10. He 
has not left his house this last three months. 

Exercise II. — Parse the pronominal adjectives in the following sen- 
tences : — 

Model 1. — " Each of the students seemed desirous to excel in the con- 
test for the prize." 

Each. — Each seemed. — "Each" is a distributive pronominal adjective; it 
represents the noun student (understood), with which it agrees in the singular 
number, third person, masculine or feminine gender, according to Rule XL, 
"A pronominal adjective, etc."; it is in the nominative case, being the subject 
of the verb seemed, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun, etc." 

2. — "Some instruction is not adapted to young minds." 

Some. — Some instruction. — "Some" is an indefinite pronominal adjective; 
it cannot be compared, and relates to the noun instruction which it limits, ac- 
cording to Rule XL, "A pronominal adjective, etc." 

I. Every citizen should obey the laws of the country by which he is pro- 
tected. 2. Although the wise have many advantages over the ignorant, these 
are not always miserable, nor are those always happy. 3. A man who has 
industry and perseverance can by these means provide for all his natural 
wants. 4. The oak sometimes overtops all the other trees in the forest. 5. 
During these five years the ministry endeavored to provide some means to 
insure success. 6. In that secluded spot some of the happiest days of the 
emigrant's life were spent. 7. No person who is less than thirty-five years 
old is eligible to the office of President of the United States. 8. Such deport- 
ment was unbecoming in his position." 9. All the details are such as to make 
one shudder with horror. 10. Each of the candidates presented his claims 
to the position. 

II. Another's hand has laid him low. 12. Every man's fortune depends 
chiefly on his own exertions. 13. Some, Cupid kills with arrows; some, with 
traps. 14. There is no man suddenly either excellently good, or extremely 
evil. 15. To what base uses the noble gifts of man's nature are sometimes 
perverted ! 16. There is none made so great as not to need both the help 

15 



170 KULE XII. AGREEMENT OF FINITE VEEBS. 

and service of the meanest of mortals. 17. Some desire is necessary to keep 
life in motion; and he whose real wants are supplied must admit those of 
fancy. 18. Rest satisfied with doing well, and leave others to talk of you as 
they please. 19. Some one commended Philip of Macedon for drinking freely; 
Demosthenes replied: "That is a good quality in a sponge, but not in a king." 
20. Good will, like a good name, is got by many actions, but lost by one. 

RULE XII.— AGREEMENT OF FINITE VERBS. 

A finite verb agrees with its subject in number and 
person. 

NOTES. 

1. The pronoun we or you, even when representing a single indi- 
vidual, requires the plural form of a verb, because the form of the 
pronoun is plural; as, " Harry, I think that you are in error." 

2. Every finite verb, except a verb in the imperative mode, should 
have a subject mentioned, unless two or more verbs are connected in 
the same construction. 

3. A verb never agrees with a noun in the first or the second 
person, but with the pronoun representing such noun; as, "James, 
thou art an honest boy.' 7 

4. A verb preceded by the indefinite personal pronoun it, and fol- 
lowed by another nominative, agrees with its subject it, and not with 
the other nominative; as, "It was you," — not, "It were you." 

5. A verb in the imperative mode agrees with the pronoun thou or 
you understood; as, " Go (thou) to the ant, thou sluggard." 

6. A verb having for its subject a phrase, or a clause, used as 
a noun, agrees with it in the singular number, third person; as, 
" To conquer one's spirit is better than to take a city." 

7. A verb, having for its subject a collective noun which suggests 
an idea of unity, is in the singular number; as, "Congress holds its 
sessions in the national capital." 

A collective noun which suggests an idea of plurality requires a 
verb in the plural; as, "The clergy were blamed for the part which 
they took in such cases." 

8. The number of a verb having for its subject a noun which has 
the same form in both numbers, is determined by the meaning of its 
subject, and not by the form; as, "A brace of ducks were sold." 

9. A verb having two or more subjects connected by and men- 
tioned or understood, is in the plural number; as, "Truth, honor, 
and mercy, are noble qualities." 



I 

RULE XII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 171 

Two or more subjects in the singular connected by and and used 
to denote but one person or thing, require a verb in the singular ; as, 
" That statesman and patriot merits the gratitude of his countrymen." 

When singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, 
every, no, or a similar distributive, they are considered separately, 
and require a verb in the singular; as, "Every nerve and sinew was 
strained to make the effort." 

Two or more subjects connected by as well as, and also, but not, 
etc., belong to different propositions, and the verb mentioned agrees 
with the first, each of the others being the subject of a verb under- 
stood; as, "The mother, as well as her children, ivas saved." 

10. A verb, having two or more subjects in the singular connected 
by or or nor, is in the singular number; as, "Neither the time nor 
the cause of the accident is known." 

When one of the subjects connected by or or nor is plural, the 
verb should be plural ; and the plural subject should be placed next 
to the verb; as, " Neither he nor his friends were to be blamed." 

11. A subject having a plural form, but forming a part of a com- 
plex noun, requires a verb in the singular; as, "Johnson's 'Lives 
of the Poets' was published in London." 

12. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con- 
nected by and, is in the first person if one of the subjects is in the 
first person ; as, "He and J (ive) are going." 

If there is no subject in the first person, the verb is in the second 
person if one of the subjects is in the second person; as, "You and 
he (you) are going." 

13. A verb having two or more subjects of different persons con-* 
nected by or or nor, agrees in person with the subject nearest to it; 
as, " Either he or I am going." 

14. When one of two subjects is in apposition with another of a 
different person, the verb agrees with the first; as, "i, your best 
friend, advise you." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction . — 

Model 1. — " We was all surprised at the result." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb was surprised, which is in the 
singular number, is used to agree with its subject we, which is a pron >un in 
the plural number; but, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc." 
Therefore ivas surprised should be were surprised, and the sentence should be, 
" We were all surprised at the result." 

2. — " Honor and shame from no condition rises." 



172 RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb rises, which is in the singular 
number, is used to agree with its two subjects, the nouns honor and shame, 
which are connected by and; but, .according to Note under Rule XII., "A 
verb having two or more subjects connected by and, etc." Therefore rises 
should be rise, and the sentence should be, "Honor and shame from no 
condition rise." 

3. — " Every plant, every insect, every animal, have an important part in 
the economy of nature." 

This sentence is incorrect, because have, which is a verb in the plural num- 
ber, is used to agree with plant, insect, and animal, which are subjects in the 
singular preceded by every; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "When 
singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, etc." Therefore 
have should be has, and the sentence should be, " Every plant, every insect, 
and every animal has an important part in the economy of nature." 

4. — " He or I is to go." 

This sentence is incorrect, because is, which is a verb in the third person, 
is used to agree with the pronouns he and /, two subjects of different persons 
connected by or; but, according to Note under Rule XII., "A verb having 
two or more subjects of different persons, etc." Therefore is should be am, 
and the sentence should be, " He or I am to go." 

1. The working class of the people is much better educated than they 
formerly was. 2. Idleness and wastefulness has brought thousands from 
wealth to poverty. 3. One or both of the boys is in the garden. 4. Mathe- 
matics are a study which require close attention. 5. The rise or fall of wages 
^depend much upon the cost of food. 6. The bear, as well as the deer, are 
nearly extinct in the eastern part of the United States. 7. The white sails 
of the schooner appears like the wings of great sea-fowls. 8. A succession 
of poor harvests were the occasion of great suffering among the peasantry. 
9. Only a few stones and the lines of a fort remains of the once important 
city. 10. Labor, perseverance, and patience, overcomes all obstacles to pro- 
gress. 11. Thou or he art to be blamed for the careless way which the 
work was done in. 12. Not one of those who appear so gay are free from 
trouble. 13. It were not them who was so much in fault as it was him. 14. 
His principal amusement and occupation were reading. 

15. Much does pride and haughtiness require reproof. 16. The religion, 
as well as the customs and manners, of those nations are entirely different 
from all others. 17. To eat heartily, to drink much, and to use little exer- 
cise, destroys health, 18. He, thou, or I, is the one who are to be rewarded, 
19. Some goods belonging to the ship was saved, but neither the crew nor 
the commander was to be found after the wreck. 20. A thousand head of 



RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 173 

cattle is sometimes seen feeding on tho prairies. 21. The people rejoices 
when it has honest and capable rulers. 22. The fleet were soon attacked and 
compelled to surrender. 23. Henry, was you present during the trial ? 24. 
The Congress of the United States are composed of a Senate and a House 
of Representatives. 25. The number of senators from each of the States are 
limited to two. 26. The ant and the bee is often cited as good examples 
of industry. 27. The traitor and renegade, Arnold, were despised even by 
those who his treason aided. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the finite verbs in the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — " Henry studies his lesson." 

Studies. — Henry studies lesson. — " Studies" is a finite transitive verb, regu- 
lar (pres. study, jast, studied, perf. part, studied); it is in the active voice, 
indicative mode, present tense, and in the singular number, third person, to 
agree with its subject, the noun Henry, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb 
agrees with its subject in number and person." 

2. — " Henry and James study diligently." 

Study. — Henry and James study. — " Study" is a finite intransitive verb, 
regular (pres. study, past, studied, perf. part, studied); — in the indicative 
mode, present tense, and in the plural number, third person, to agree with 
its two subjects, the nouns Henry and James, connected by and, according to 
Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc.," and Note under Rule XII., "A verb 
having two or more subjects connected by and, etc." 

3. — " Each name and number should be distinctly written." 

Should be written. — (Each) name and number should be written. — " Should 
be written" is a finite transitive verb, irregular (pres. write, past, icrote, perf. 
part, written) ; — in the passive voice, potential mode, past tense, and in the 
sing, num., third person, to agree with its two subjects, the nouns name and 
number, which are in the singular and connected by and and preceded by each, 
according to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc."; and Note under Rule XII., 
"When singular subjects connected by and are preceded by each, etc." 

4. — " If it should be raining, I will remain." 

Should be raining. — (If) it should be raining. — " Should be raining" is a 
finite intransitive verb, regular (rain, rained, rained); in the active voice, po- 
tential mode, used subjunctively, past tense, progressive form, and in the 
sing, number, third person, to agree with its subject, the pronoun it, accord- 
ing to Rule XII., "A finite verb agrees, etc." 

5. — " The man's excuses were laughed at." 

Were laughed at. — Excuses were laughed at. — "Were laughed at" is a com- 
plex finite transitive verb, regular (laugh, laughed, laughed); — in the pass. 
Voice, indicative mode, past tense, and in the plural number, third person, 

15* 



Yi i RULE XII. — EXERCISES. 

to agree with its subject, the noun excuses, according to Rule XII., "A finite 
verb, etc." 

6. — " Were I Brutus, etc." 

Were. — /were. — "Were" is a finite intrans. verb, irregular {am, was, been)) — 
in the subjunctive mode, past tense, and in the sing, number, first person, to 
agree with its subject, the pronoun /, according to Rule XII., "A finite verb, etc." 

I. Prove all things : hold fast to that which is good. 2. They are never 
alune who are accompanied by noble thoughts. 3. Science and art have done 
much to improve our condition. 4. Every party, as well as every tribe, has 
its chief, who controls those who are subordinate to him. 5. The ambassador 
with his secretary arrived safely at court. 6. " Do to others as you would 
have others do to you," should be the rule of conduct for all. 7. The fleet 
frequently changed its position in order to avoid the fire of the enemy. 8. The 
embassy were unable to agree upon terms of peace. 9. A score of wild pigeons 
were killed at every discharge of the gun. 10. The scoffs, the gibes, the jeers 
of the foolish, are unheeded by the wise. 

II. You or he has been the cause of the difficulty in arranging satisfac- 
tory terms. 12. " Livingstone's Travels in South Africa" is a work of 
superior merit. 13. Neither Wellington nor his oificers could entirely pre- 
vent some of the troops from committing depredations upon the Spaniards. 
14. Neither sound nor movement was detected until the attack was com- 
menced at all points. 15 Your friend and adviser is unable to help you in 
your present time of need. 16. Nitrogen and oxygen united form the air 
which we breathe. 17. The more we study the body and the mind, the more 
we find both to be governed according to such laws as we observe in the 
larger universe. 18. The actions of men are like the index of a book; they 
point out what is most remarkable in tbeni. 19. To be angry, is to revenge 
the fault of others upon ourselves. 20. After Caesar had finished the war in 
Africa, the Roman Senate created him dictator for ten years. 

Neither a borrower nor a lender be, 
For loan oft loses both itself and friend : 
And borrowing dulls the edge of husbandry. 
This above all, — To thine own self be true; 
And it must follow, as the night the day, 
Thou canst not then be false to any man. 

Forth in the pleasing Spring 
Thy beauty walks, Thy tenderness and love. 
Wide flush the fields; the softening air is balm; 
Echo the mountains round: the forest smiles; 
And every sense and every heart is joy. 



KULE XIII. — INFINITIVES — NOTES. 175 



RULE XIII. — INFINITIVES. 

A verb in the infinitive mode depends upon the word 
which it limits or completes in meaning. 

NOTES. 

1. A verb in the infinitive mode usually depends upon a finite verb; 
but it may depend upon another infinitive, upon a participle, or upon 
any part of speech except the article and the interjection. 

2. An infinitive is sometimes used independently ; as, " To speak 
the truth, I think it was he who was in fault." 

3. An infinitive may be used as a noun in the nominative or in 
the objective case ; as, " To study seemed his only desire." 

When so used, it may be qualified in the same manner as a verb , 
as, " He intended to start on his journey immediately." 

An infinitive used as a noun may, if it is transitive and in the 
active voice, govern a noun or a pronoun in the objective case ; as, 
" They endeavored to improve their minds by reading." — " To make 
money is not the sole object of life." 

The infinitive of an intransitive verb, or an infinitive in the passive 
voice, may, when used as a noun, have a noun or a pronoun after it 
used independently ; as, " To become a good man is a nobler aim 
than to become a great one." — " To be elected president was his aim." 

4. A verb in the infinitive mode has no subject ; but it may relate 
to a noun or to a pronoun in the nominative or in the objective case ; 
as, " They made no effort to accomplish their task." 

5. The auxiliary to should not be separated from the remainder 
of the infinitive by inserting another word: thus, "Be careful to 
not disturb him," should be, "Be careful not to disturb him." 

6. The auxiliary to is usually omitted when the infinitive follows 
the active voice of the verbs bid (to command ), dare (to venture), 
feel, hear, let, make, need, and see and verbs of similar meaning 
(such as behold, mark, observe, watch, etc.) ; as, "I did not hear him 
(to) speak on that subject." 

To is not omitted after the passive voice of the verbs bid, dare, 
feel, etc.; as, "The prisoner was seen by several to commit the act " 

It may sometimes be properly used after the active voice of these 
verbs; as, " He did not feel himself to be in fault." 

7. When several infinitives are connected, to is used with the first, 
but is usually omitted in the others ; as, " To plow, sow, cultivate, and 
reap, is the order of succession." 



* 



176 RULE XIII. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

8. At the end of a sentence, to should not be used for the full form 
of the infinitive : thus, " I wished to go, but I had no opportunity 
to" should be, " — I had no opportunity to go" 

9. The present tense of the infinitive should usually be used when- 
ever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the infinitive, is 
present or future, compared with that expressed by the principal 
verb ; as, " He hoped to merit the praise of his friends/' 

Verbs expressing command, expectation, hope, intention, etc., require 
the present tense of the infinitive after them ; as, " The general 
ordered the assault to be made at daybreak." 

10. The present perfect tense of the infinitive should usually be 
used whenever the action, the being, or the state, expressed by the 
infinitive, is past, compared with that expressed by the principal 
verb ; as, " Milton seems to have had a wonderful imagination." 

After seems, appears, etc. the present perfect tense is correctly used 
if followed by a term denoting past time, or if reference is made to 
a person no longer living, or to an act known to be past ; as, "James 
seems to have been sick yesterday." — " Napoleon appears to have been 
governed mostly by ambition." 

11. An infinitive having the form of the active voice is sometimes 
used with a passive meaning; as, "He is to blame." — "The agent 
has a house to rent." — " There are two rooms to let." 

It is, however, better to use the form of the passive voice in all such 
instances ; as, " He is to be blamed." — "A house to be rented, etc." 

Exekcise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " He did no more than it was his duty to have done." 
This sentence is incorrect, hecause to have done, which is the present perfect 
tense of the infinitive, is used to express an action which was present com- 
pared with the time of the action expressed hy the verb did, upon which it de- 
pends ; hut, according to Note under Rule XIIL, " The present tense of the 
infinitive should usually be used, etc." Therefore to have done should be to 
do, and the sentence should be, "He did no more than it was his duty to do." 

2. — "He was never heard speak upon that subject." 

This sentence is incorrect, because to, which is a part of the infinitive to 
speak, is omitted after was heard, the passive voice of the verb to hear ; but, 
according to Note under Rule XIIL, "To is not omitted, etc." Therefore 
epeak should be to speak, and the sentence should be, " He was never heard 
to speak upon that subject." 

3. — " The man was ordered to not smoke in the car." 



RULE fall. — EXERCISES. 177 

This sentence is incorrect, because the auxiliary to is separated from the 
remainder of the infinitive by inserting the adverb not; but, according to 
Note under Rule XIII., " The auxiliary to should not be separated, etc." 
Therefore to should be placed after not, and the sentence should be, " The 
man was ordered not to smoke in the car." 

I. We seldom see men to conduct themselves consistently at all times. 2. 
He had not then consented to go, nor did he intend to. 3. Milton seems to 
have his first efforts as a writer poorly appreciated. 4. Endeavor in all ways 
and at all times to properly conduct yourself. 5. Each hoped to have received 
the reward to which they considered himself to be entitled. 6. Peace is not 
established throughout the world, and is not likely to yet. 7. If thou be 
bidden do an act, why do you let it to remain undone ? 8. It were they who 
tried to repeatedly annoy us by their interruptions. 9. He never intended 
to have let such an opportunity to pass unimproved. 10. Csesar appears to 
be possessed of an ambitious character. 

II. The clerk was to blame for the loss of the document. 12. It was 
impossible to clearly distinguish the objects at so great a distance. 13. The 
hunter was heard say, that he would dare any one mount the wild horse who 
he had captured. 14. The prisoner felt himself be deserving of the punish- 
ment inflicted upon him. 15. I wished to have gone with my friends into 
the country, but I was forbidden to. 16. The French expected to have gained 
much by their invasion of Russia. 17. The boy seems to be sick lately, 
judging from his present weakness. 18. "We should make our influence be 
felt by those who we expect to govern. 19. The man who resolves to 
patiently wait for the results of his labor will succeed. 20. Some are content 
to learn only what costs them no effort to. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the infinitives in the following sentences :— 

Model 1. — "He hastened to leave the country." 

To leave. — Hastened to leave country. — " To leave" is a transitive verb, irre- 
gular {leave, left, left) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, present tense, 
and depends upon the verb hastened, which it completes in meaning, accord- 
ing to Rule XIII., "A verb in the infinitive mode, etc." 

2. — " Love to study because of the pleasure it affords." 

To study. — Love to study. — " To study" is an intransitive verb, regular, 
(study, studied, studied) ; in the infinitive mode, present tense ; it is used as a 
noun in the singular number, third person, and of the neuter gender ; in the 
objective case, being the object of the action expressed by the verb love, 
according to Rule IV., "A noun or a pronoun which is the object, etc." 

3. — " He was, so to speak, a miracle of learning." 

To speak. — " To speak" is an intransitive verb, irregular (speak, spoke t 



178 RULE XIV. PAETICIPLES — NOTES. 

spoken) ; and is in the infinitive mode, present tense ; it is used independently, 
according to Note under Rule XIII., "An infinitive is sometimes used, etc." 

4. — "He knows better than to disobey his parents." 

To disobey. — Than to disobey parents. — "To disobey" is a trans, verb, reg. 
{disobey, disobeyed, disobeyed) ; it is in the active voice, infinitive mode, pre- 
sent tense, and depends upon the conjunction than which it completes in 
meaning, according to Rule XIII., "A verb, etc." 

I. In summer nature seems to smile with gladness. 2. It is sometimes 
difficult to determine whether an act is right or wrong until the motive is 
known. 3. Learn to labor, and to wait. 4. He has never learned to com- 
mand, who has not also learned to obey. 5. To enjoy the blessings of peace, 
was the ardent wish of the people. 6. To read, to write, and to cipher, are 
generally considered three all-important objects. 7. Government, to fulfill the 
purposes for which it is established, should protect the rights of all. 8. To 
become rulers is not in the power of every one, yet it is possible for all to 
become good men, and useful citizens. 9. It does little good to preach virtue 
and temperance unless precept is enforced by example. 10. To be reproved 
by a wise man is better than to be praised by a fool. 

II. Never be ashamed to confess ignorance, for that is a step towards 
knowledge. 12. But when thou doest alms, let not thy left hand know what 
thy right hand doeth. 13. It is impossible to calculate the power which good 
example has to influence society. 14. He, their sire, butchered to make a 
Roman holiday ! 15. And darest thou, then, to beard the lion in his den, — 
the Douglas in his hall? 16. 0! that men should put an enemy in their 
mouths to steal away their brains ! 17. To smell a turf of fresh earth is 
wholesome to the body. 18. Then I commended mirth, because a man hath 
no better thing under the sun, than to eat, and to drink, and to be merry. 19. 
To gild refined gold, or to paint the lily, is ridiculous excess. 

RULE XIV. PARTICIPLES. 

A participle relates to the noun or the pronoun which 
it describes or limits. 

NOTES. 

1. A participle maybe used as a noun in the nominative or in the 
objective case; as, "Reading good books promotes knowledge/' — 
" The morals are corrupted by reading bad books. " 

A participle used as a noun may govern the objective case, and at 
the same time may be qualified in the same manner as a verb ; «,s, 
" His leaving the city so suddenly occasioned much surprise/' 



RULE XFV .- -NOTES EXERCISES. 179 

2. A participle sometimes becomes a noun simply; as, "Running 
and wrestling were favorite sports among the Greeks." 

In such instances it may be qualified by an adjective, but not by 
an adverb; as, "Rapid running depends much upon training." 

3. A participle preceded by an article or an adjective is a noun 
simply, and is generally followed by the preposition o/" to govern an ob- 
jective following ; as, "That reading of the play was much admired." 

A participle used as a noun may be preceded by a possessive or 
an adjective without being followed by of; as, "Mary's playing the 
piece was not expected." — "Fluent speaking is generally the result 
of practice." 

If the active participle of a transitive verb is used as a noun, it is 
not preceded by an article unless it is followed by of; nor is it fol- 
lowed by of unless it is preceded by an article, an adjective, or a 
possessive: thus, "By the learning grammar our language is im- 
proved," should be, " By the learning of grammar, etc.", or, " By 
learning grammar, etc." 

The meaning is usually the same when the article and of or the 
adjective and of are used, as when they are omitted, — although such 
is not always the case, as is apparent in the following sentences: 
"He was ruined by burning his house." — " He was ruined by the 
burning of his house." 

4. A participle is sometimes used as an adjective, and should be 
so parsed; as, "The sound of falling waters was heard." 

5. A participle may sometimes be used abstractly after a verb in 
the infinitive mode ; that is, without relating to any word ; as, " To 
be always working would be ruinous to the health." 

6. A participle may have a noun or a pronoun after it used inde- 
pendently; as, "His being called a wit did not make him one." 

7. The auxiliaries have and be are never joined with the past tense 
of a verb, but with the perfect participle; as, "He has gone to travel 
in Europe," — not, " He has went, etc." 

8. The perfect participle should never be used instead of the past 
tense to express simply past time: thus, "James seen him do it," 
should be, "James saw him do it." — "He begun [began] to read." 

9. A participle is often used where the meaning would be more 
elegantly expressed by the use of a verb in the infinitive mode, or 
of an equivalent expression : thus, " Exciting hopes which can not 
be fulfilled is wrong," should be, " To excite hopes, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 



180 RULE XIV. — EXERCISES. 

Model 1. — "By the telling the truth at all times, we may he trusted." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the article the is used before the par- 
ticiple telling, which is used as a noun, and is not followed by of; but, ac- 
cording to Note under Rule XIV., " If the active participle of a transitive 
verb is used as a noun, etc." Therefore the should be omitted, and the sen- 
tence should be, " By telling the truth at all times, etc." 

2. — " James has saw the whole transaction." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the auxiliary have is joined with saw, 
which is the past tense of the verb to see; but, according to Note unler 
Rule XIV., "The auxiliaries have and be are never joined, etc." Therefore 
saw should be seen, and the sentence should be, " James has seen, etc." 

I. Reading poetry properly requires a knowledge of the author's meaning. 
2. The pupil who was a striking of his class-mate, deserved the punishment 
which was gave him. 3. The audience expressed the pleasure which they 
experienced in hearing of the lecturer. 4. The travelers had not proceeded 
far before they were overtook by a party of horsemen. 5. It is thought he 
would have went, had he been invited. 6. The English language is spoke 
in nearly all parts of the world. 7. Arnold done an act which will forever 
leave a blot upon his name. 8. John thinks he seen his friends pass by. 
9. I would have wrote sooner, but the writing letters is always unpleasant to 
me. 10. After he had drank freely of cold water he felt better. t 

II. Some one has took from me all the materials which I had for writing 
of the essay. 12. The teacher forbid them playing during the time set apart 
for the studying their lessons. 13. The work assigned would have been 
began but for an unexpected accident. 14. The using the rod too frequently 
leads to degrading of the mind. 15. He might have chose a profession which 
would be more pleasant to him. 16. No one done more for the relief of the 
suffering than he. 17. True courage is sometimes shown by suffering of ills 
without complaining. 18. A bridge was formed by a tree which had fell across 
the ravine. 19. Having written of his letters, he commenced a writing of 
his composition. 20. Although he done nothing criminal, yet his conduct 
was blameworthy. 

Exercise II. — Parse the participles in the following sentences: — 
Model 1. — "An opportunity neglected never returns." 
Neglected. — Opportunity neglected. — "Neglected" is the perfect participle 
of the passive voice of the trans., regular verb to neglect (imp. being neglected f 
perf. neglected, preperf. having been neglected) ; it relates to the noun oppor- 
tunity, which it describes, according to Rule XIV., "A participle, etc." 

2, — " By observing the faults of others, we may avoid similar ones." 



RULE XIV. — EXERCISES. 181 

Observing.— By observing faults.—" Observing" is the imperf. part, of the 
active voice of the trans, reg. verb to observe (imp. observing, perf. observed, pre- 
perf. having observed); it is used as a noun in the singular number, third 
person, and of the neuter gender, — in the objective case, being the object 
of the relation denoted by the preposition by, according to Rule IV., " A 
noun or a pronoun which is the object of an action, etc." 

3. — " Reading is a very important branch of knowledge." 

Heading. — Reading is. — " Reading" is a participial noun, in the singular 
number, third person, and of the neuter gender; it is in the nominative case, 
being the subject of the verb is, according to Rule I., "A noun or a pronoun 
which is the subject of a finite verb, is in the nominative case." 

4.—" The earth is clothed in living beauty." 

Living. — Living beauty. — " Living" is the imperfect participle of the in- 
transitive, regular verb to live (imperf. living, perf. lived, preperf. having lived) ; 
it is used as an adjective; it can not be compared, and relates to the noun 
beauty, which it describes, according to Rule X., "An adjective, etc." 

5. — " To be always finding fault is a contemptible trait." 

Finding. — To be finding fault. — " Finding" is the imp. participle of the 
active voice of the transitive irregular verb to find (imp. finding, perfect, 
found, preperf. having found) ; it is used abstractly after the infinitive to be, 
according to Note under Rule XIV., "A participle may sometimes, etc." 

I. Having once lost the good opinion of our friends, it is difficult for us to 
reclaim it. 2. The king never surrendered his claim to the hunting grounds 
of the nobles. 3. It is our understanding which places us above the brute 
creation. 4. Thinking he now had an opportunity for securing possession 
of the coveted territory, he marched his troops across the borders. 5. The 
continual dropping of water will wear even stones. 6. Water continually 
dropping wears even stones. 7. The horse's running was greatly admired. 8. 
The horse running, fell, and was badly injured by striking his head upon a 
projecting stone. 9. By the teaching of others our knowledge is increased. 
10. By teaching others we are likely to increase our own knowledge. 

II. A man accustomed to the changing scenes of life is never easily 
dejected by misfortune. 12. The ambassador, having received his in- 
structions, proceeded at once upon his appointed mission. 13. To continue 
fasting too long weakens the system. 14. Striving for the acquisition 
of knowledge has been called "climbing the hill of science." 15. Climbing 
the hill of science, we encounter unexpected difficulties. 16. The war resulted 
in a defeated army, a desolated country, a treasury emptied of its revenues, and 
parties striving each for the mastery. 17. Success depended on his remaining 
true to the cause. 18. Nothing done by the deceased can justify you in 

16 



182 RULE XV. ADVERBS — NOTES. 

having treated them so cruelly. 19. The meaning of the sentence was altered 
by his reading of the passage selected. 20. The visiting of our friends gave 
them pleasure. 21. "We derived great pleasure from visiting our friends at 
the place proposed, and on the appointed day. 22. A word fitly spoken is like 
apples of gold in pictures of silver. 23. Thoughts shut up want air, and spoil 
Uke bales unopened to the sun. 

For Freedom's battle, once begun, 
Bequeathed by bleeding sire to son, 
Though baffled oft, is ever won. 

Canst thou minister to a mind diseased; 
Pluck from the memory a rooted sorrow; 
Raze out the written troubles of the brain ? 

RULE XV. ADVERBS. 

An adverb relates to the verb, the adjective, or the other 
adverb, which it qualifies. 

NOTES. 

1. A conjunctive adverb relates to the two verbs which it qualifies, 
one in one clause and one in another; as, " Whither thou goest, I 
will go." — "Think before you speak." 

2. An adverb sometimes relates to a preposition, or to a preposi- 
tion and its object ; as, "Just before us lay the city." — " He perished 
almost in sight of land." — " The ball struck exactly in the centre." 

An adverb may relate to a clause or to a sentence ; as, " Truly 
this man was the Son of God." 

Certain adverbs seem also to relate partially to nouns or to pro- 
nouns; as, "We, not you, are wrong." — "Even the detective was 
deceived." 

In all such instances, however, the adverbs should be parsed as 
qualifying the verb. 

3. An adverb is sometimes used independently; as, "Indeed, I was 
not aware of the change." — " "Will you accept my terms ? No." — 
*' Yea, the earth itself shall pass away." 

4. The adverbs yes, yea, no, nay, and amen, in answer to questions, 
may be regarded as the equivalents of propositions. They then 
qualify no verb. 

5. The adverb there, occurring at or near the beginning of a 
sentence, does not always imply place, but is often a mere expletive 
used to avoid ubruptness; as, " There is a land of pure delight." 



9 
RULE XV. — XOTES. 183 

6. An adverb sometimes relates to a verb which is not mentioned, 
but which may be readily suggested by the adverb used; as, "Out, 
brief candle !" — "Away, slight man !" 

7. An adverb should not be used as an adjective, nor should it ever 
be employed to denote quality: thus, "The alone idea," — "The 
soonest moment," etc., should be, " The sole idea," — " The earliest 
moment," etc.; "She looks sweetly" — "It tastes bitterly" etc., 
should be, " She looks sweet," — "It tastes bitter" etc. 

8. The adverb ever is sometimes incorrectly used for never ; as, 
" It rarely or ever \n.ever\ snows in this latitude." 

9. No as an adverb can qualify comparatives only; as, " The task 
no longer appeared difficult." Therefore no should never be used 
after or to qualify a verb understood: thus, "Will you go, or no?" 
should be, "Will you go, or (will you) not (go) ?" 

10. The adverb how should not be placed before the conjunction 
that; nor should as, how, or as how, be used for that : thus, " I am 
not sure how (or, as how) I can come," should be, " I am not sure 
that I can come." 

11. In the use of the adverbs when and where, care should be taken 
not to employ them improperly for the pronoun which and its accom- 
panying words : thus, " The hour when the train was due," should be, 
"The hour in (or at) which, etc." — "There was no family where he 
was not welcome," should be, "There was no family in which, etc." 

12. The adverbs here, there, and where, which primarily denote 
position, may be used in common discourse for hither, thither, and 
whither, after verbs implying motion, but exactness requires the use 
of the latter adverbs; as, "Where are you going?" — but more 
properly, " Whither are you going ?" 

13. The preposition from is sometimes inelegantly used before the 
adverbs hence, thence, and whence, which in meaning imply this 
preposition: thus, "From whence cometh my help," should be, 
" Whence cometh my help ?" 

So also from here, from there, etc., are incorrectly used for from 
this place, etc. 

Since then, till now, till then, and similar expressions, are allow- 
able, but are not elegant. 

In general, an adverb should not be used as the object of a pre- 
position. If, however, it is so used, the two words must be regarded 
as forming an adverbial phrase, and must be parsed as such. 

14. Two negatives should not be used in the same proposition if 
an affirmation is intended ; as, " He can not do any harm," not, 
" He can not do no harm." 



184 EULE XV. — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

A negative, however, may be repeated for the sake of emphasis ; 
as, " We will never, neve?*, never, lay down our arms/' 

When an affirmation is intended, not may be used properly, 
and with pleasing effect, to qualify adjectives having negative pre- 
fixes, such as dis, in, im, un, etc.: thus, "I am not indisposed to 
favor you," means, "I am disposed, etc." 

15. Adverbs should be placed near the words which they qualify. 
In general, an adverb precedes the adjective or the adverb which it 
qualifies, — and follows the verb, or is placed between the verb and 
its auxiliary; as, "He is truly happy." — "A very carefully written 
book." — " He fought nobly, and he was nobly rewarded." 

An adverb should never be placed between to, when a part of the 
infinitive, and the verb ; " To not know," should be, "Not to know." 

The improper position of the adverbs chiefly, merely, only, (not) 
only, solely, etc., often renders the meaning ambiguous. These 
should be placed next to the words which they qualify : thus, 
"Not only he has forfeited all right to our esteem, but he also deserves 
severe punishment," should be, " He has not only forfeited, etc." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
notes for each correction : — 

Model 1. — "How pleasantly this breeze feels." 

This sentence is incorrect, because pleasantly, which is an adverb, is used 
as an adjective to describe the noun breeze ; but, according to Note under Rule 
XV., "An adverb should not be used, etc." Therefore pleasantly should be 
pleasant, and the sentence should be, "How pleasant this breeze feels." 

2. — " The ship is soon expected to arrive." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the adverb soon is placed so as to qualify 
the verb is expected, when, properly, it should qualify the infinitive to arrive; 
but, according to Note under Rule XV., "Adverbs should be placed near the 
words which they qualify, etc." Therefore the sentence should be, " The 
ship is expected to arrive soon." 

1. That dress looks prettily upon her. 2. During his fits of melancholy 
he felt that everybody was his enemy very often. 3. "Where did you come 
from here? 4. Ambition was the alone motive of his action. 5. The ancients 
were undecided whether suicide was a crime or no. 6. The merchant went 
to Boston and from thence sailed for Liverpool. 7. The trial of Warren 
Hastings where Sheridan spoke so eloquently, will long be remembered. 8. 
He could never after all his search find nothing. 9. The persevering and 
energetic man will be successful usually. 10. Being delayed, I very near 
missed the train. 11. He said how that he had lost his leg during the last 
campaign. 12. Where I am, there ye can not come. 



t 

RULE XV. — EXERCISES — RULE XVI. 185 

13. I do not admire neither your words nor your acts. 14. Willing or no, 
you must go with me. 15. I did not say nothing at all, sir. 16. The explo- 
sion was previously to the fire. 17. They arrived safely notwithstanding all 
their risks. 18. From whence he came and where he is going to, I know not. 
19. The chair where he usually sat still remained. 20. These opportunities 
are of seldom occurrence. 21. The then king was George IV. 22. The dark 
mountain seemed more hugely than ever. 23. How sweetly this rose smells. 
24. Frank seldom or ever fails to perfectly recite. 25. Since when have you 
been engaged in this establishment? 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the adverbs in the following sentences : — 

Mode l. — " Tread softly on this hallowed ground." 

Softly. — Tread softly. — "Softly" is an adverb of manner; — it can be com- 
pared (pos. softly, comp. more softly, sup. most softly)] — it is in the positive 
degree, and relates to the verb tread, which it qualifies, according to Rule 
XV., " An adverb relates, etc." 

I. Did Charles act wisely in deciding so speedily? 2. Man wants but little 
here below. 3. Be scrupulously neat at all times. 4. How various his 
employments, whom the world calls idle. 5. Sometimes in distant lands I 
stray. 6. A man's genius is always, at the beginning of his life, as much 
unknown to himself as to others. 7. Then up with the flag and let it wave 
proudly in every breeze, however gentle, however fierce. 8. These men that 
have turned the world upside down, have come hither also. 9. Peradventure 
he is asleep, and must be awakened. 10. Surely, you will not think of start- 
ing in so violent a storm ? Indeed, you must wait awhile. 

II. Far down in yonder glen the pious hermit dwelt. 12. The most 
enterprising are generally the most successful. 13. Immediately after this 
exercise the scholars were dismissed. 14. Whiz, whiz, went the bomb, and 
all again rushed helter-skelter to covert. 15. Venice exists but in name. 
16. And e'en his failings leaned to virtue's side. 17. The culprit was indeed 
not unworthy of that great presence. 18. Well, if this be law, I want none 
of it. 19. Britons never, never, never, will be slaves. 20. Thither at once 
will I turn my wandering footsteps, and no longer be a dreamer among men. 

RULE XVI. — PREPOSITIONS. 

A preposition shows the relation between the noun or 
the pronoun which follows it and some preceding word. 

The preceding word may be called the antecedent term of relation; 
the noun or the pronoun which follows the preposition, the sub- 
sequent term. In the expression, "The love of virtue," "love" is 
the antecedent term, and " virtue" the subsequent, 

16* 



186 RULE XVI. — PREPOSITIONS — NOTES. 



NOTES. 

1. A preposition may show the relation between a participle, a 
verb in the infinitive mode, a phrase, or a clause, following it, and 
some preceding word; as, " He took delight in doing good." — " The 
steamer is about to sail." — "He was eager for the conflict to begin." 
— " Success depends upon how you improve your opportunities." 

The use of the preposition for, however, before a verb in the in- 
finitive mode, is obsolete; as, " But what went ye out for to seef" 

2. Complex prepositions show relation between terms in the same 
manner as simple or compound; as, "This book was selected from 
among them all." — "Because of these things cometh the wrath of God/' 

3. In certain phrases called prepositional (or adverbial), such as, 
in particular, in short, in vain, to the right, etc., the subsequent term 
is omitted, but it must be supplied in parsing; as, " He sued in vain 
(words) for mercy." 

Sometimes when such phrases as the preceding and some others are 
used independently at the beginning of sentences, the preposition 
has no antecedent term of relation mentioned; as, " In a word, I know 
nothing about the matter." 

In parsing, some independent infinitive or participle may be sup- 
plied; such as, to speak, speaking, etc. 

The antecedent term is not mentioned in exclamatory sentences 
like the following: "0 for a lodge in some vast wilderness." It may- 
be supplied in parsing: thus, "0 I long for, etc." 

4. Two prepositions connected by a conjunction may have the 
same subsequent; as, "Did he vote for or against the measure?" — 
" Boats pass to and from the city daily." 

When, however, the prepositions are separated by several inter- 
vening words or phrases, it is often better to use the noun after the 
first preposition only, and to employ a pronoun after the second: 
thus, " I will give heed to, and be guided by, your advice," — but 
better, " I will give heed to your advice, and be guided by it." 

5. The preposition should not be omitted except where usage has 
sanctioned its omission: thus, "The subject is worthy your atten- 
tion," should be, "The subject is worthy of, etc." — "He fled the 
country"; — supply from. 

The preposition to or unto is commonly omitted after the adjectives 
or the adverbs like, near, and nigh; as, "The son is like (adj.) his 
father." — " The house is near (adj.) the lake." — " He is nigh (adj.) 
his end." — " The Indians came near (adv.) the fort." 

The preposition is frequently omitted after verbs of giving, pro- 



t 

EULE XVI. — NOTES. 187 

curing, etc. ; as, " He gave (to) me a book." — " Show (to) me a Chris- 
tian, and I will show (to) you a man." — -" Procure (for) him a ticket." 

The preposition is usually suppressed before a term denoting time 
or measure; as, " He lived many years after that event." — " He tra- 
veled ten miles." — " Three yards long." — " Six feet high," etc. 

The prepositions to be supplied in parsing may be by, for, during, 
in, through, etc. 

The preposition of is often improperly placed before a term de- 
noting time or measure, which is already the object of relation de- 
noted by some preposition suppressed. 

Thus, the sentence, " He was a lad of nine years old," should be, 
"He was a lad (by) nine years old," or, " — of nine years of age." 
So also, " It was a stream of sixty yards wide," should be, " It was a 
stream (by) sixty yards wide," or, " — of sixty yards in width." 

6. The place of the preposition should be such as will clearly 
show what terms are in relation: thus, "The two parts are united 
under the Thames by a tunnel," should be, " The two parts are 
united by a tunnel under the Thames." 

In prose, a preposition precedes the term which is the object of its 
relation ; — except the relative pronoun that, which is always placed 
before the preposition, being separated from it by intervening words; 
as, "It is the same person that I wrote to you about." 

Whom, which, and what are also sometimes placed before the pre- 
positions by which they are governed, — but not elegantly; as, 
" Whom do you come from?" — " What was he guilty off" — but better, 
" From whom do you come?" — "Of what was he guilty?" 

In poetry, however, a preposition may follow a subsequent term; 
as, — 

" My father lived in Blenheim then, 
Yon little stream hard by." 

7. Care should be taken to use those prepositions which will cor- 
rectly express the relations intended; as, "I have need of jour as- 
sistance," not " — for your assistance." 

In denoting situation, or meaning within, is often improperly used 
for into, denoting entrance: thus, "He came in the room," should 
be, "He came into the room." "He came into the room, and re- 
mained in it," is correct usage. 

Between or betwixt refers to two objects or sets of objects only; 
— among or amongst to more than two; as, "Between virtue and vice 
there is no middle path." — "Among so many candidates, but one ful- 
filled all conditions." 



188 



RULE XVI. — NOTES — EXEECISES. 



The proper use of other prepositions must be learned from dic- 
tionaries, and by observation. 

Below are given a few words with their appropriate prepositions 
following: — 



Access to. 

Acquaint with. 

Acquit of. 

Agreeable to. 

Angry with a person, at a thing. 

Arrive at, in, not to. 

Averse to. 

Bestow upon. 

Call on a person, at a house, for a 
thing. 

Compare icith (in respect of 
quality) ; to (for illustration). 

Confide in. 

Copy after a person ; from a thing. 

Correspond with, to. 

Die of a disease; by an instru- 
ment, or violence; for another. 

Differ with a person in opinion ; 
from, in quality. 



Different from, not to. 

Disagree with a person; to a pro- 
posal. 

Disappointed of a thing not ob- 
tained ; in a thing obtained. 

Expert at (before a noun); in 
(before an active participle). 

Independently of not on. 

Inseparable from. 

Martyr for a cause ; to a disease. 

Need of 

Partake of in. 

Prefer, preferable, to. 

Reconcile a person to; a thing 
icith. 

Rid of, not from. 

Touch at a place. 

Unite to (transitive) ; with (in- 
transitive). 



Exercise I. — Correct the folloAving sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " This supposition is very different to that." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition to does not correctly 
express the relation intended between its two terms, the adjective different 
and the pronominal that; but, according to Note under Rule XVI., "Care 
should be taken to use, etc." Therefore to should be from, and the sentence 
should be, " This supposition is very different from that." 
2. — " A bridge connects the two villages across the river." 
This sentence is incorrect, because the preposition across is so placed as to 
show a relation between the two terms villages and river, whereas the proper 
terms of relation are bridge and river ; but, according to Note under Rule 
XVI., " The place of the preposition, etc." Therefore the sentence should be, 
"A bridge across the river connects the two villages." 

1. Profession and practice often differ widely with each other. 2. Among 
such good friends as you two are, no serious quarrel should arise. 3. A 
shallow grave of only two feet deep was hastily dug. 4. What use is this 



RULE XVI. — EXERCISES. 189 

book to me? 5. A despatch has just been received from the seat of war of 
great importance at the Ledger Office. 6. I passed a man begging with one 
leg in the street. 7. After many years of alienation he became reconciled 
with his brother. 8. The train arrived to Pittsburg two hours from its time, 
being delayed with heavy snow drifts. 9. Give me the portion which belongs 
to me of goods. 10. The right will be sold for a moderate sum of retailing 
this article throughout the state. 11. For sale, a piano, by a gentleman, with 
richly carved rosewood legs, who is about to sail for Europe. 12. The affec- 
tion of David towards Jonathan was very great. 13. Such conduct is unbe- 
coming you who should be an example of the rest. 14. Where do you live 
when you are to home ? 

15. This lad, as a warning for others, should be publicly dismissed the school. 
16. He is truly deserving all the esteem which has been bestowed upon him. 17. 
Trees were planted in regular intervals along the avenue. 18. Unfortunately 
no pains were taken to rid him from these bad habits. 19. The general rode 
along accompanied with a numerous staff. 20. He came in the room 
unobserved, and sat down on a chair near to the wall with a broken back. 
21. Be careful to cherish prejudices to none. 22. A house of four stories 
high stands at the corner. 23. These lot of goods is very inferior from the 
sample you showed me. 24. They have gone in the garden to take a walk. 
25. A girl is wanted who can do the work of a small family, with good refer- 
ence. 26. He said that he did not intend for to do it. 27. Wh i did he allude 
to in them remarks? 28. Between we three there should be no secrets. 29. 
These things are inseparable to each other. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the prepositions in the following sentences : — 
Model 1. — "I passed several days in rambling about the country." 
In. — Passed in rambling. — " In" is a simple preposition ; it is placed before 
the imperfect participle rambling, used as a noun, to show its relation to the 
verb pasted, according to Note under Rule XVI., "A preposition may show 
the relation between a participle, etc." 

2. — About. — Rambling about country. — "About" is a compound preposition; 
it is placed before the noun country to show its relation to the imperfect 
participle rambling used as a noun, according to Rule XVI., " A preposition 
shows, etc." 

3. — " A serpent glided from beneath the log." 

From beneath. — Glided from beneath log. — "From beneath" is a complex 
preposition; it is placed before the noun log to show its relation to the verb 
glided, according to Rule XVI., "A preposition, etc." 

4. — " Keep to the right as the law directs." 



190 UTILE XVII. — CONJUNCTIONS — NOTES. 

To. — Keep to (hand). — " To" is, etc. ; it is placed before the noun hand (not 
mentioned) to show its relation to the verb keep, according to Note under 
Rule XVI., "Complex prepositions show, etc." 

1. The stream was distant from us about a mile. 2. Flattery is at war 
with the very soul of childhood. 3. The atmosphere rises above us with its 
cathedral dome arching towards the heavens. It floats around us like that 
grand image which the Apostle John saw in his vision, — "A sea of glass like 
unto crystal." 4. He had indeed left none his like behind him. 5. As to 
style, Demosthenes was his favorite author among the ancients ; among the 
English, Bolingbroke and Barrow. 6. Keep to the left, and you will be safe. 
7. You will seek in vain for a better. 8. for a cup of cold water now ! 9. 
The whistling of the wind through the cordage sounded like funeral wail- 
ings. 

10. From among the dead leaves of winter the pale snowdrop now rears 
her humble head. 11. Since his death his good qualities have been much 
lauded. 12. Why, it was only last week, that Gripe the attorney recovered 
two cottages for him, worth sixty pounds. 13. As the mountains are round 
about Jerusalem, so the Lord is round about his people. 14. The brook 
appeared to well out from beneath the hollow root of an old thorn. 15. He 
raised his head and glanced from the fluttering signal at the window to his 
bat, that lay, with slate and book and other boyish property, upon the table 
in the room. 16. Though this freedom from care was very pleasant at first, 
he soon began to be weary of having nothing to do. 17. We rode up as the 
train was about to start. 18. Trespassers will be dealt with according to 
law. 

RULE XVII. CONJUNCTIONS. 

A conjunction connects the words, the parts of a sen- 
tence, or the sentences, between which it is placed. 

NOTES. 

1. Conjunctions connect words, phrases, clauses, members, or com- 
plete and distinct sentences ; — 

I. Words; as, " The moon and the planets shine by reflected 
light. 

A sentence containing connected words is usually equivalent to a 
compound sentence containing as many sentences or propositions as 
there are words connected : thus, "James, Henry, and William came/' 
is equivalent to "James came, Henry came, and William came." 

Sentences like the following can not be changed to others in which 



t 

RULE XVII. NOTES. 191 

the words will belong to separate propositions ; as, "Four and two 
make six/' — " The period of man's life is three score years and ten." 

II. Phrases; as, "He strove with all his powers, and to a noble end." 

III. Clauses; as, "Experiments prove that water is compress- 
ible/' — " Correct me if I am wrong/' 

IV. Members; as, "It was time to start, but our guide had not 
appeared." 

V. Full and distinct sentences ; as, " The air also has its influence 
upon water, etc. But of all agencies, fire is the most powerful, etc." 

2. Conjunctive adverbs connect the clauses between which they 
are placed ; as, "While the bridegroom tarried, they all slumbered." 
— " They received me kindly when I entered." 

3. The conjunction that sometimes merely introduces a clause 
which is the subject of a finite verb in a subsequent clause; as, 
"That you have wronged me, doth appear in this." The meaning 
is, " {It) doth appear in this that you have wronged me." 

4. Words connected by conjunctions are always of the same class 
(nouns and pronouns being regarded as one class), and are in the 
same construction ; as, "Mary and she study from the same book." 
— " The ball struck him and me." — " The building is large and con- 
venient." — " The city ivas attacked, and (was) captured." 

5. Verbs connected by one or more conjunctions may have the 
same subject, if they agree in form, voice, mode, and tense ; as, " He 
might have come and (might have) gone without my knowledge." — 
"He was honored and (was) loved by all." 

Verbs connected require a subject mentioned for each, if they 
differ in form, if a contrast is made, or if a strong emphasis is 
intended: thus, "He has been reproved and will do better in the 
future," should be, "He has been reproved, and he will do better in 
the future," because the two verbs differ in voice and tense. "He 
came, but (he) did not remain long." 

By the use of the subject before each verb, the verbs are made to 
belong to separate clauses or members. 

6. When two connected parts of a sentence have a common refer- 
ence to a third part, they should be made to accord with the latter, 
and with each other, in construction: thus, "He did as much, per- 
haps more, for the cause than any other man," should be, " He did 
as mtich for the cause as any other man, perhaps more." 

7. Than is used to connect a clause with a preceding clause con- 
taining an adjective or an adverb in the comparative degree, or 
c™i + n"rnng else, other, otherwise, or rather; as, "It is more blessed 
to give than to receive." — " How could I do else than obey?" 



192 KULE XVII. — NOTES. 

8. There is generally an ellipsis in Jhe clause connected with a 
preceding clause by as or than. In supplying the ellipsis, the 
second clause should correspond in construction with the first ; as, 
"He is farther advanced than I (am advanced)." — "He is as good 
as his word (is good)." 

In consequence of the ellipsis, than is sometimes incorrectly followed 
by a pronoun in the objective case ; as, " Than whom \\oho sat], Satan 
except, none higher sat." — " They suffered more than us [we suffered] ." 

9. As should not be used for who, whom, or which, or for that 
(whether a conj. or a relative) : thus, " I know the man as witnessed 
the affair," should be, "I know the man who, etc." — "He said as 
he would come," should be, " He said that he would come." 

By ellipsis, as seems to have the force of a relative pronoun after 
such, as many, so many, as much, etc.; as, "He reads such books as 
he can get." 

It is better to supply the ellipsis and to parse as as a conjunction: 
thus, "He reads such books as (those are which) he can get." 

As is sometimes used simply to connect words which are in 
apposition ; as, "He appeared in the play as Hamlet." 

10. After the verbs doubt, fear, etc., whether should not be used 
for if; — nor should but, but that, or lest, be used for that : thus, " I 
doubt whether he will come to-morrow," should be, " I doubt if, etc. ;" 
— "He was afraid lest you would fail," should be, "He was afraid 
that you would fail." 

11. When words or clauses are connected by correlatives, care 
must be taken to use those which correspond with each other : thus, 

Both — and; as, " Observe the rules both here and elsewhere/' 
Hither — or; as, " He is either foolish or insane." 
Neither — nor ; as, " He would neither assent nor deny." 
Not only — but also; as, "Not only safety but also justice required 
his death." 

Tliough — yet ; as, " Though mild in manner, yet firm in principle." 
Whether — or; as, "He could not decide whether to go or to remain." 
As (adv.) — as (conj.) express equality when used with an adjec- 
tive or an adverb ; as, " The accomplice is as bad as the thief." 

As (conj.) — so (conj.) express equality or proportion when used 
with two verbs ; as, "As cold water (is) to the thirsty soul, so is 
good news from a far country." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality when used with an adjective 
or an adverb ; as, "You were not so fortunate as I." 

So (adv.) — as (conj.) with an adjective or an adverb express a 
limited comparison; as, "Be so kind as to read this letter." 



i 
RULE XVII. — EXERCISES. 193 

So (adv.) — that (conj.) express a consequence when followed by 
a finite verb ; as, " So live, that you may not fear to die." 

Exercise I. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or 
the note for each correction : — 

- Model 1. — " He had little more money hut that earned by his labor." 

This sentence is incorrect, because but is improperly used for than after the 
comparative more; but, according to Note under Rule XVII., "Than is used 
to connect, etc." Therefore but should be than, and the sentence should be, 
" He had little more money than that earned by his labor." 
2. — " He is not nearly as energetic as his friend." 

This sentence is incorrect, because tbe adverb as is used as the correlative 
of as to deny equality; but, according to Note under Rule XVIL, "When 
words or clauses are connected, etc. So (adv.) — as (conj.) deny equality 
when used with an adjective or an adverb." Therefore as should be so, and 
the sentence should be, " He is not nearly so energetic as his friend." 
3. — "He has been in no high position, yet commands the respect of all." 
This sentence is incorrect, because has been and commands, which are con- 
nected by the conjunction yet, have but one nominative mentioned, although 
they differ in form ; but, according to Note under Rule XVIL, " Verbs con- 
nected require a subject mentioned for each, if they differ, etc." Therefore 
he should be repeated before the verb commands, and the sentence should be, 
" He has been in no high position, yet he commands the respect of all." 

1. Neither threats or entreaties was sufficient to turn him from his purpose. 
2. The pupils read well, but will not study diligent, nor listen attentively to 
explanations. 3. He was much better acquainted with that section of the 
country nor any of his companions. 4. He has not fulfilled his engagement 
with that promptness as was expected. 5. I always have and always shall 
be of the opinion that the fault was his only. 6* Wisdom and honesty is as 
valuable, and even more so, as choice silver. 7. These books are equal, if 
not better, than those. 8. Savages have little else but the rudest implements 
for cultivation. 9. The boldness of the ignorant is as great, and greater, 
than that of the wise. 10. "Who is so thoughtless that dare attempt this 
act? 11. The sentence is not as clearly expressed as it should be. 

12. Take to heart one maxim which I always have observed, and ever 
shall; — it is, never to say more but what is necessary. 13. We very much 
doubt whether harmony will ever be established between all nations. 14. So 
arrange your duties as the little things of life may not be neglected. 15. To 
pretend friendship and acting differently, are the worst kind of hypocrisy. 
16. He was asked whom he loved best, and answered, " My brother." 17. To 

17 



194 RULE XVII. — EXERCISES. 

get our clothing wet, and neglecting to change them, is a source of many 
diseases. 18. The phalanx of the Greeks were not considered as effective as 
the legion of the Romans. 19. It is just so bad to act a lie as to tell one. 
20. The witness had no other but hearsay evidence to give. 21. Always be 
as candid as to admit a fault. 22. The rules were so obscure as they required 
a great deal of explanation. 23. Endeavor to assist such persons that need- 
your assistance. 24. He not only built the house, but lived in it many years 
25. Few have been so fortunate as our friend. 26. As far as I know, he never 
fulfilled his promise. 

Exercise 1 1. — Parse the conjunctions in the following sentences : — 

Model 1. — "James reads and writes." 

And. — Reads and lorites. — "And" is a conjunction, and connects the two 
verbs reads and icrites, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 
"A conjunction connects, etc." 

2. — " Government is necessary to ensure safety and to establish justice." 

And. — To ensure safety and to establish justice. — "And" is a conjunction, 
and connects the two phrases, to ensure safety, and to establish justice, 
between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

3. — " If necessary, I will accompany you." 

If. — / will accompany you if {it is) necessary. — " If" is a conjunction, and 
connects the two parts of a sentence (clauses), I icill accompany you and {it is) 
necessary, between which it is placed, according to Rule XVII. 

4. — "Both the time and the occasion were unsuitable." 

Both. — Both time (and) occasion. — "Both" is the correlative of and, and 
with and connects the two nouns time and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

And. — (Both) time and occasion. — " And" is the correlative of both, and 
with it connects the two nouns, time and occasion, according to Rule XVII. 

1. The hills, as in the old scriptures they are called, are, indeed, everlasting. 
2. As we still feel in our nerves the motion of the sea after we have planted 
our feet on the firm land, so the crests and hollows of the solid globe continue 
to make themselves felt in our mind. 3. We grow to love a country as we 
grow to love a. person, because we have there exercised our faculty of loving. 
4. Every tree and every flower has something more than its own beauty, 
whether it grows in the shadow, or in the light of the glorious mountains. 5. 
Since the majority of persons act from impulse much more than from prin- 
ciple, men are neither so good nor so bad as we are apt to think them. 6. 
Education not only elevates the nature of him who hath it, but also of those 
with whom he associates. 

7. We strive as hard to hide our hearts from ourselves as from others, and 



RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS — GENERAL RULE. 195 

always with more success; for in deciding upon our own case, we are judge, 
jury, and executioner. 8. If a man take delight in idle argumentation, he 
will be able to combat with sophists, but he will never know how to live with 
men. 9. Though the wrongs of others strike you to the quick, yet with your 
reason take part against your fury. 10. A king may be a tool, a thing 
of straw; but if he serves to frighten our enemies, and to secure our property, 
he answers a purpose : a scarecrow is a thing of straw, yet it protects the corn. 

RULE XVIII. — INTERJECTIONS. 

An interjection has no grammatical dependence upon any 

other word. 

NOTES. 

1. An interjection may be followed by a pronoun in the possessive 
or in the objective case; as, "Omy!" — "Ah me! 7 ' In such ex- 
pressions the case of the pronoun is determined by some word under- 
stood: thus, "0 my fate!" — "Ah! pity me." 

2. Another part of speech seems sometimes to be used as an 
interjection; as, "Strange!" — "Back! false fugitive 1" Such ex- 
pressions are usually elliptical: thus, "{It is) strange!" — "(Go) 
back ! false fugitive 1" 

Exercise. — Parse the interjections in the following sentences: — 

Mode l. — " that those lips had language I" 

0. — "0" is an interjection; it has no dependence upon any other word, 
according to Rule XVIII., "An interjection has, etc." 

1. Ah ! what a sight was this ! 2. Hark ! hark ! the lark at heaven's gate 
sings. 3. What! wouldst thou have a serpent sting thee twice? 4. Oh! 
sailor-boy, peace to thy soul. 5. Ha! laughest thou, Lochiel, my vision to 
scorn? 6. that I had wings -ike a dove! 

GENERAL RULE. 

In the expression of thought, those forms and usages 

of language should be employed which will best express 

the meaning intended. 

NOTES. 

1. Every verb should be used with its appropriate form and mean- 
ing: thus, "He set motionless," should be, "He sat motionless;" — 
" The meadows were overflown [overflowed] for miles." 

The verbs most frequently misused one for another, are dare (in- 
trans.), for dare (trans.); flee, for fly; lay, for lie; learn, for teach; 
raise, for rise; set, for sit; and the auxiliary shall for will. 



196 GENERAL RULE — NOTES — EXERCISES. 

2. In the arrangement of verbs in connected clauses, the proper 
relation of time should be observed: thus, " The train started before 
we arrived," should be, " The train had started before we arrived;" 
— " The boat started after we had arrived," — not," The boat started 
after we arrived." 

Care should be taken to use that tense of every verb which will 
denote accurately the relative time of an action, a being, or a state: 
thus, " I said, last week, that the event would happen," — not, " I 
have said, etc. ;" — " Ye will not come unto me that ye might have 
life," should be, " — that ye may have life." 

3. A verb in the subjunctive mode, present tense, should be used 
to express a future contingency; as, "Though he slay me, yet will I 
trust in him." — " If it rain to-morrow, I will remain at home." 

A verb in the subjunctive mode, past tense, is used to. express 
doubt, uncertainty, or a supposition, in which definite time is not 
expressed; as, "If the decision were just, I would not complain." 

Lest and that succeeding the imperative mode, should be followed 
by a verb in the subjunctive mode; as "Govern well thy appetite, 
lest sin surprise thee." 

When the contingency is regarded as certain, or as probable, a 
verb in the indicative mode is used; as, "If the decision was just, 
there was no cause of complaint." — ■" If it rains, do not go now." 

4. Such expressions as had rather, had better, had like, had ought, 
had as lief, though in common use, are ungrammatical, and should 
be avoided: thus, "I had like to have missed the chance," should 
be, "I almost missed the chance." 

Exercise. — Correct the following sentences, and apply the rule or the 
note for each correction : — 

Model 1. — " The officers appointed to enforce the law were attacked and 
compelled to fly." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb to fly, meaning to soar (as 
with wings), is used instead of to flee, meaning to hasten (as from danger); 
but, according to Note under General Rule, " Every verb should be used, etc." 
Therefore fly should be flee, and the sentence should be, " The officers ap- 
pointed to enforce the law were attacked and compelled to flee." 

2. — "When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he visited nearly all the 
countries in the Old World." 

This sentence is incorrect, because the verb visited expresses simply past 
time; but, according to Note under General Rule, "In the arrangement of 
verbs in connected clauses, etc." Therefore visited, which is the past tense 
of the verb to visit, should be had visited, the past perfect tense, which ex- 



t 

GENERAL RULE — EXERCISES. 197 

presses past time previous to some other past time^ and the sentence should 
be, " When Bayard Taylor returned to America, he had visited, etc." 

3. — * I had as lief not be, as live to be, etc." 

This sentence is incorrect (or inelegant), because the auxiliary had is un- 
grammatically used as the sign of the past tense of the verb to be in the po- 
tential mode. But, according to Notes under General Rule, "Every verb 
should be used, etc.," and " Such expressions as had rather, etc." Therefore 
had should be would, and the sentence should be, "I would as lief (or will- 
ingly) not be, as live to be, etc." 

4. — " A robbery or a theft is the same in principle, but not in magnitude." 
This sentence is grammatically correct, but it does not express the mean- 
ing intended, because a separation or choice is denoted by the use of the 
conjunction or, while the idea of addition or of similarity is suggested by 
the adjective same; but, according to General Rule, "In the expression of 
thought, etc." The meaning would be better expressed by the use of and 
for or, and by changing is to are to agree with its two nominatives, the nouDS 
robbery and theft; and the sentence maybe, "A robbery and a theft are, etc." 

I. I am acquainted with all the circumstances this long time. 2. You may 
go now, but return as soon as you have finished your business. 3. The Par- 
liament had like to have been blown up by gunpowder. 4. A piece of char- 
coal or a diamond is proved, by chemical analysis, to contain the same pro- 
perties. 5. The storm increasing in violence, he dared not proceed further. 
6. He completed his work when we returned. 7. The priest and infidel were 
disputing whether there was a God. 8. Neither would they be persuaded 
though one arose from the dead. 9. If any member absents himself, he 
shall pay a fine. 10. It had been well for him if he had died before he com- 
mitted so foul a deed. 

II. No sovereign of France was beloved ever so much as Henry IV. 12. 
The winter sat in early, and was more than usually inclement. 13. In this 
quiet nook he used frequently to set and gaze upon the landscape. 14. A 
pincers is sometimes very useful. 15. Give no more trouble than you can 
help. 16. Looking over the morning paper was seen an account of the damages 
done by the storm. 17. By laying too long in bed he lost the opportunity to 
go. 18. I should be pleased if you will accompany me. 19. Having gained 
the prize, it soon lost its value. 20. All examples in which there is a single 
mistake must be performed anew. 

21. The sun sat in a cloud last evening. 22. He stepped up to the enraged 
animal, and, placing the muzzle close to its head, every spark of life was ex- 
tinguished by its discharge. 23. I will be lost, for nobody shall help me. 
24. When shall you leave for the country? 25. After they drank in the little 

17* 



198 GEKEKAL EULE — EXEECISES. 

stream, they reclined at its bank. 26. A matter so important had ought to 
have been attended to. 27. Unable to move, the soldier laid where he fell. 
28. It is difficult to learn some lads their lesson. 29. These baking powders 
are warranted to make the bread raise in a very short time. 30. that I 
was as in days gone by ! 31. If thou takest heed, then shalt thou prosper. 
32. All great errors are said to contain an important truth. 

General Exercise. — Parse each word, and analyze each sentence, 
in the following extracts : — 

1. Do not wait to strike until the iron is hot, but make it hot by striking. 
2. Persons who have the good sense to speak only what they know, have the 
reputation of knowing more than they communicate. 3. A history of events 
which never have happened, or a recital of facts which never occurred, may 
be more emphatically than euphoniously called a lie. 4. To observe unob- 
servedly shows the observer. 5. Politeness is like an air-cushion; there may 
be nothing in it, but it eases our jolts wonderfully. 6. How is it that evil 
has so much more power than good to produce its effects, and to propagate 
its nature? — One drop of foul will pollute a whole cup of fair water; but one 
drop of fair water has no power appreciably to improve a cup of foul. 7. The 
same law which moulds a tear, preserves the earth a sphere, and guides them 
both in their courses. 

As the sudden flash of lightning will sometimes disclose what in the long 
blaze of noonday has escaped the beholder, so will conviction break unex- 
pectedly upon the human mind, from some slight but striking circumstance 
which comes with the irresistible force of unpremeditated truthfulness. 

Fair Pennsylvania! Than thy midland vales 
Lying 'twixt hills of green, and bound afar 
By billowy mountains rolling in the blue, 
No lovelier landscape meets the traveler's eye. 
There Labor sows and reaps his sure reward, 
And Peace and Plenty walk amid the glow 
And perfume of full garners. 

I could never believe that Providence had sent a few men into the world 
ready booted and spurred to ride, and millions ready saddled and bridled to 
be ridden. 

Sombre forests shed a melancholy grandeur over the useless magnificence 
of nature, and hid, in their deep shades, the rich soil which the sun had never 
warmed. No axe had leveled the giant progeny of the crowded groves, in 
which the fantastic forms of withered limbs, that had been blasted and riven 
by lightning, contrasted strangely with the verdant freshness of a younger 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 199 

growth of branches. The wanton grape-vine, seeming by its own power to 
have sprung from the earth, and to have fastened its leafy coils on the top 
of the tallest forest-tree, swung in the air with every breeze, like the loosened 
shrouds of a ship. 

How beautiful this night! the balmiest sigh 

Which vernal zephyrs breathe in evening's ear, 

Were discord to the speaking quietude 

That wraps this noiseless scene. Heaven's ebon vault, 

Studded with stars unutterably bright, 

Through which the moon's unclouded grandeur rolls, 

Seems like a canopy which Love has spread 

To curtain a sleeping world. 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

I. You and them have frequently committed the same offence. 2. I have 
heard from my brother, he who went to Colorado. 3. Those pupils are 
farther advanced than us. 4. John he may go and attend to the matter. 5. 
The affair was soon settled, him being disposed of. 6. The note was dis- 
counted at the Farmers and Mechanics Bank. 7. The kings guard was com- 
posed of youths' from the noblest families. 8. He who was actually to blame, 
thou shouldst censure. 9. Who do you suppose the guilty party to be? 10. 
These sort of shallow tricks are soon discovered. 

II. The eighth and ninth page was lost. 12. Having been set a task, he 
commenced at it immediately. 13. You had better not have gone. 14. The 
snow laid on the ground all day. 15. The noblest kind of a shade-tree is 
the elm. 16. He was expelled the institution by his misconduct. 17. He 
first spoke against, and then voted for, the bill. 18. Many a young pro- 
mising man, has been ruined with evil associations. 19. His uncle and him 
attended the same church. 20. Some who he considered friends proved to be 
his w >rst enemies. 

21. When I rescued the child, he was in an horrible plight. 22. The 
name of the Deliverer of his Country was bestowed upon William Tell. 23. 
A constitution of the United States is our paramount law. 24. He attended 
the sale and bought an hammer and a hour-glass. 25. What easy comes, 
easy goes. 26. Whether a man tries or no, he can never add nothing to hia 
stature. 27. He could not remember the book where the passage was found. 

28. Nowhere was such fine fruit growed as on the sunny side of this hill, 

29. They seldom or ever accomplished what they undertook. 30. Alexander 
the Creat seems to be possessed of a desire for conquest which could not be 
gratified. 



200 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

31. That edition has been exhausted many years ago, and none was pub- 
lished since. 32. Tou must handle them boxes with care, for they contain 
glass. 33. If you follow me, I will lead thee in wisdom's pleasant ways. 
34. Each of you shall have your share. 35. Every hour and every day have 
their appropriate duties. 36. The piece of ground was divided into lots 
twenty foot wide by one hundred deep. 37. Those kind of cherries are said 
to be very unwholesome. 38. No one but John and his friends were there. 
39. The greater his talents, the worser injury he is capable of inflicting. 40. 
I should esteem it a great favor, if you will grant my request. 

41. Two rivers unite at this point, Alleghany and Monongahela. 42. Do 
like I do, if you wish to succeed. 43. The child was directed to set at the 
table properly. 44. What else is such language but sheer nonsense? 45. A 
crevasse being formed, the country was overflown for miles. 46. He were 
well when I seen him last. 47. Us agreeing to the arrangement, quietness 
was again restored. 48. It was me which made the assertion. 49. Use a 
little wine for thine often infirmities. 50. If this system was carried out, 
Btudy would be no more use. 

51. Beware of him who you know to be untruthful. 52. Me being an im- 
portant member and unable to attend, the meeting was adjourned. 53. The 
reason of him doing so was obvious. 54. Wars occurred in Madison and 
Polk's administration. 55. This style of architecture prevailed during the 
tenth and eleventh century. 56. Another and a wiser course was adopted. 
57. Being struck with lightning, the old huge elm failed down on the ground 
with a heavy crash. 58. He done all his work long before the time ap- 
pointed. 59. Bunyan seems not to have forsook his religion, although by 
the adhering to it he severely suffered. 60. The property was to be equally 
divided between the three children. 

61. The artist criticized his friend's (as he called him) production with much 
freedom. 62. I have been to New York last week. 63. Either of the lads are 
permitted to try for the prize. 64. If you are unwell, go and lay down. 65. 
If you will allow me time to consider of the matter, I will give you a intel- 
ligible answer. 66. Let us so act that we are not accused for neglecting our 
duty. 67. How bitterly that medicine tasted ! 68. "Who is willing to risk his 
life in the cause?" he asked. Every man at once responded, " Me." 69. These 
examples present a better appearance than them. 70. The rich and poor, the 
old and young, here enter, but never return. 

71. A Christian is the highest style of a man. 72. Since this is the safer 
way, it is of course the more preferable. 73. Riches may confer influence 
upon its possessor, but will not purchase happiness. 74. His powers of endur- 
ance are much more inferior than what I supposed. 75. Either of them occu- 
pations suit my abilities. 76. Having did the work satisfactorily, he received 



i 

GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 201 

more than what he was promised. 77. The witness seen the thief to enter the 
house. 78. What a long train of difficulties often proceed from one false step 
in life ! 79. Every sentence is the same or a composite of these. 80. The days 
of our childhood are often the most happiest of our lives. 

81. Hard work is not congenial with his disposition. 82. His servants ye 
are to whom ye obey. 83. She can dance and sings very sweetly. 84. I can 
gather as many bushels as he has. 85. It is better to have a love for, than 
to fear, your teacher. 86. Milton's " Paradise Lost," of all his other works, is 
the noblest. 87. Doing of these things is forbidden. 88. He that is studious 
I will reward. 89. The knowing ourselves is the highest wisdom. 90. Him 
that is a talebearer, all despise him. 

91. This goods was not in the market before last spring. 92. The distin- 
guishing faculty of the man is the reason. 93. The colonel despatched a 
messenger for reinforcements, and them having arrived, the troops was 
enabled to maintain their position. 94. In preparing of this essay, I princi- 
pally have consulted Patton, Bancroft, and Hildreth's histories. 95. He had 
both studied Playfairs Euclid and Davies Legendre. 96. Both these rulers 
had vindicated humanity and civilization by his official acts. 97. Snow is 
melted easier than ice. 98. We need to scarce name him. 99. You came 
quick, now see if you can do the work prompt. 100. The alone object of his 
life was the making money as fast as he can. 

101. We are them who witnessed the whole affair. 102. The field yielded 
fifteen bushel to the acre. 103. Which is the most beautiful, the pink or ver- 
bena? 104. The fifth and sixth examples are incorrect. 105. Who did you 
apply to, and who did you find favorable? 106. If Caesar had not have 
crossed the Rubicon, Rome would still have fell. 107. Where have you lain 
your book? 108. Being diffident, she was afraid to come in the room. 109. 
How can this statement be reconciled to the facts? 110. A brief examination 
showed that he was a better mathematician than a grammarian. 

111. We will come, if it does not rain. 112. The man who you sent me 
for was left before I arrived. 113. Being obliged to walk a great distance, 
and the weather it being very cold, I was almost froze. 114. Those class 
of people are very disagreeable. 115. Neither he nor I is prepared to answer. 
116. Between you and I, he is greatly mistaken. 117. A torn old pantaloons, 
stained by blood, was found. 118. Every one has, or will be informed of this 
change in the order of the exercises. 119. Let each esteem other better than 
themselves. 120. The ship now lays at Race Street wharf. 

121. It is difficult to clearly understand the author's meaning. 122. Men- 
tion the sentence where those words occur. 123. Seeing how the man was 
not guilty, the judge ordered his discharge. 124. The truth of his statement 
it could never be made apparent. 125. How carefully your time should be 



202 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

spent during this most important ten years of your life ! 126. The necessity 
of some new method has been felt long. 127. It has recently been discovered 
that there were large salt-mines in Nevada. 128. I have found an instance 
where this rule is not applicable. 129. This event occurred in the year 
when Washington died. 130. The greatest two means by which advancement 
and civilization is due, are inventions and discoveries. 

131. The nation who have oppressed them have been punished. 132. Who 
who knew the circumstances could withhold sympathy? 133. This few hours 
delay proved to be a serious loss. 134. If he have succeeded, it was through 
my assistance. 135. All things which live, must die. 136. Great bodies move 
slow. 137. I said as how I did not know. 138. The car of Time runs incessant. 

139. I was weighed the other day, and have found that I gained ten pound. 

140. The chapter where this subject is explained is well wrote. 

141. The soldier whom they imagined was killed, only had received a 
slight wound. 142. Whomsoever will, may drink of the water of life freely. 
143. The lady, her who sang so sweet last evening, will be here to-day. 144. 
Grant and Lee's armies were no doubt mutually pleased at the cessation 
of hostilities. 145. Will you permit him and I to go ? 146. Sit thee down 
beneath this tree. 147. The name of a Greek became synonymous with all 
which was great among men. 148. No statement has been more universally 
admitted. 149. The farm consists of thirty eight acres, six of which is 
woods. 150. There is a large house at the foot of a high hill covered with a 
dense forest, which is four stories high. 

151. We had now gone a three days' journey across the plains, and did not 
see one living thing. 152. Another time and a place will be appointed. 153. 
He went away last Monday, since when I have not seen him. 154. Either 
of these three plans are feasible. 155. The cultivation of earth has been com- 
manded by God himself. 156. But I laughed, and telled her as how the 
other young lady had payed me. 157. The man that attends close to business 
will succeed. 158. Each acted agreeable to the dictates of their conscience. 
159. Mary's cousin's friend has gone home. 160. The ladies were of a blonde 
and brunette complexion. 

161. If gold was unknown, some other substance would take its place. 
162. The use of the mariners compass' was devised by an Italian by the 
name of Flavio Giorga. 163. I must have put the paper in my pocket by 
mistake, and drew it out carelessly, and thus lost them. 164. The gentleman 
which owns the farm is my uncle. 165. How pleasantly the garden looks 
after the shower! 166. An intelligent child of ten years old answered my 
question. 167. " It must be them," she cried, as the sound met her ear. 168. 
Although turf and wood will burn readily, it will not answer as well as coal 
does. 169. To some, either from nature or by cultivation, this feeling is 



GENEKAL EXEECISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 203 

more strongly developed than of others. 170. The influence of surrounding 
circumstances in boyhood produce effects which last through a lifetime. 

171. Lost, an umbrella belonging to a gentleman, with a curiously carved 
ivory head. 172. Pride and vanity are akin ; but the first is a failing of 
great, the last of little minds. 173. I will give you the most genteelest pair 
cf stockings you ever wore. 174. How this sight brings all the happy scenes 
to my mind of childhood and youth! 175. At the time of the accident the 
train was running at the rate of forty mile the hour. 176. The reason of 
the man acting so do not clearly appear. 177. Whosoever disobeys the com- 
mand, you will order under arrest. 178. The colonel with his regiment were 
captured at Antietam. 179. I intended to have went home early. 180. 
Either he or thou has been unjustly accused. 

181. Webster is dead — the statesman and orator are no more. 182. The 
stars seem to shine brighter in winter than in summer. 183. Conformable to 
his wishes, I had made preparations to have gone in the first steamer. 184. 
Gentlemen are requested to not smoke in the cabin. 185. Such questions 
are easier asked than answered. 186. He outdone all his companions who 
had went to college with him. 187. thee who sittest judge, decide my 
cause. 188. No one can do no more than him in the cause of religion. 189. 
I have seldom or ever seen so fine a display. 190. Every man, woman, and 
child were slain by the Indians. 

191. Alexandria became the most flourishing of any of the cities built by 
Alexander the Great. 192. The bank has began to retire its smaller notes 
from circulation. 193. They had came before I did. 194. The errata of his 
book was rectified as soon as possible. 195. He now looks cold upon his best 
friends. 196. Politeness gains friends among every class of society. 197. This 
supply is as much, if not more, than we need. 198. Benedict Arnold, who is 
another name for traitor, will always be contemned. 199. Mary is the fairest 
of her sisters. 200. Let some less commoner expression be used. 

201. I know not of no author seldom so read. 202. Whereas, we form 
part of this country, and being desirous of sharing in the privileges of its 
government, it is resolved. 203. No other means but these were used. 204. I 
have had as much, a,nd even greater difficulties to contend with, than them. 
205. Both Charles, Thomas, and William are absent. 206. I will reward thee 
if you do your work well. 207. Come and abide thee under my roof to-night. 
208. Where did you find them gloves ? 209. My brother and me were de- 
tained. 210. I bought the book at my friend's Jones store. 

211. This is the lawyer's, whose house is at the other end of the village, 
horse and carriage. 212. I fear lest there is no hope of him recovering. 
213. Great harm often arises from one entering upon a profession to which he 
is not fitted. 214. Mason's and Dixon's line is already famous. 215. Every 



204 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

tree is known by his fruit. 216. Who who has a regard for virtue can conn* 
tenance such acts ? 217. They chose he and I from among the number. 218. 
Him being safe, I am happy. 219. If he had have ordered it, we would have 
obeyed. 220. Do not forget to inquire after your aunt's and uncle's healths. 

221. The enjoying fortune's goods is more coveted than the winning them. 
222. She takes much pleasure in cultivating of flowers. 223. Caution and 
promptness are alike requisite; this in forming plans, and that in executing 
them. 224. Thee and thy money may perish together. 225. An art is offspring 
of the science. 226. They read the inscription upon his tomb, "A scholar and 
a soldier lies here." 227. To what ports did you touch on your voyage to 
China? 228. It are those boys which have annoyed us. 229. His health, as 
well as his property, were lost. 230. The mob were noisy, but not desperate. 

231. Fifty head of cattle has perished in the flames. 232. Many a one 
have found this out to their sorrow. 233. I am the man who own this house. 
234. He is perished in his sins. 235. Blunt common sense was one of " Old 
Rough and Ready's," as he was called, prominent characteristics. 236. In the 
making many books there is no end. 237. He seen the man who had stole 
the watch. 238. The lad confessed that he done it. 239. Even a tyrant can 
not always act as he wishes to. 240. Steady perseverance, and not spas- 
modic effort, accomplish great results. 

241. The sceptre of England, the goal of my ambition and the prize that 
I have risked everything for to secure, are now within my grasp. 242. 
Mathematics are a branch of education which are indispensable. 243. He 
had purchased a remarkable fine horse, with which he intended to have ridden 
to the city daily. 244. He stands firmly and is not to be moved easy from 
his position. 245. He was promised a large reward if he discovers the 
missing articles. 246. Many men are deserted from the army on this account. 
247. He can not write only, but also reads. 248. The circumstances where I 
found him have not been misrepresented. 249. He ranked the highest of 
any in his class. 250. If you and me set the example, the rest will follow. 

251. A problem being difficult should not make a scholar to despair. 252. 
The " Lives of the Poets" were written by Dr. Johnson. 253. I care not 
whether you like it or no, you never take no advice. 254. Arkwright was a 
inventor, not discoverer. 255. Only a little while ago, I were wishing you to 
have been here. 256. "We were not sure as he would come. -257. His motives, 
as well as his gift, was despised. 258. He requested to be permitted to learn 
his brother the lesson. 259. This fellow sat himself up as our judge. 260. 
My opportunities have not been as favorable as yours. 

261. The flower-bearing plants are the most beautiful of all the others. 
262. By him carefully observing of these rules, he gained success. 263. The 
mob rarely listens to reason; they are swayed by passion alone. 264. There 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 205 

is another class of the carnivorous kind that hunt hy the scent, and whom it 
is more difficult to escape. 265. " It is only me," said the frightened lad. 
266. A feeble senate and enervated people mark the decline of Roman great- 
ness. 267. On either side of the river was the tree of life. 268. A theft or 
murder may be committed in the heart, before they are done by the hand. 
269. How pleasant to have friends who we may rely on of all occasions ! 270. 
A dog is regarded as a model of fidelity. 

271. By the increase in value of gold the price of all articles has greatly 
raised. 272. Wafted by the wind, twenty sail of vessels has come into port. 
273. I have written as many or more sentences than you have. 274. To eat, 
to drink, and to sleep, is all which he can find time to attend to. 275. Each 
officer and each soldier were then separately examined. 276. Neither the 
lieutenants or the captain were responsible for the failure of the expedition. 

277. A large collection embracing many valuable coins were offered for sale. 

278. They marched slow and deliberate, halting frequent for rest. 279. On 
his friend requesting to be informed, no answer was given. 280. Gentle 
reader, let you and I in like manner endeavor to improve our opportunities. 

281. This account is not as reliable as the other. 282. If thy hand or thy 
foot offend thee, cut them off and cast them from thee. 283. He is the very 
man as would suit us. 284. These books are as good, if not better, than 
tbem. 285. Neither horse or rider ever were seen. 286. The facts are such 
that when produced will astonish us. 287. If the town was left defenceless, 
it might be plundered. 288. His remark was that water always sought its 
level. 289. The Atlantic cable has not been laid, but is soon likely to. 290. 
What can be more preferable than virtue ? 

291. A large number of the most influential citizens were in favor of the 
measure. 292. He that honoreth me, I will honor. 293. Him and me could 
never agree. 294. When the morning came, all the chief priests and elders 
were gathered together. 295. There are a great variety of flowers. 296. 
Between them two it is hard to decide, each being as good as another. 297. 
The more mild and gentle they are treated, the better is their disposition. 
29S. Charleses problems' are correctly performed, but Henrys' is full of 
errors. 299. If I was certain of succeeding, I would make the attempt. 
300. This is none other but the house of God. 

301. Such a great work has been undertaken seldom. 302. Even a tyrant 
can not always act as he wishes to. 303. It was reserved for a later age to 
prove that the earth turned on its axis once every twenty-four hours. 304. 
Before this day came round great changes took place. 305. Be ye angry and 
sin not; let not the sun go down upon thy wrath. 306. He drank to excess 
and soon come to want. 307. This here business is important. 308. I sought 
for, and after much difficulty found, the place. 309 This landscape is a 

18 



206 GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 

picture of Bierstadt. 310. Among these two plans there is no room for 
choice. 

311. The campaign has been conducted in a different manner than what I 
feared. 312. The ship laid at anchor all night, hut a gentle wind raising in 
the morning, we sat sail- at seven o'clock. 313. Let us not only ourselves 
practice, but seek to inculcate in others a love for, the duties of hospitality. 
314. Let each perform their part, and all will be well. 315. The gentleman's, 
to say the least, conduct was disgraceful. 316. No pain, no sorrow, enter 
there. 317. They would neither come themselves nor allowed the rest to. 
318. Two weeks holiday were allowed to every clerk. 319. This question, 
like others, has a right and wrong side to it. 320. "A featherless biped" was 
Plato's definition of a man. 

321. The specimens you was pleased to send us, gives general satisfaction. 
322. The whole brigade with all its train were captured. 323. Such practices 
were not becoming one making the professions he has. 324. The philosophy 
is science of causes. 325. He is a better critic than an artist. 326. The 
seeking gold has impoverished more than it has enriched. 327. Good taste 
and fashion are often at variance ; for this is founded upon the principle of 
fitness, that usually upon mere whim. 328. Who did I see but the very 
man? 329. Whom do men say that I am ? 330. I should know it to be she 
by her signature. 

331. Him removed, we need no longer fear. 332. All were better qualified 
but him to fill the situation. 333. The well once yielded fifty barrel of oil a 
day. 334. Let us be careful to always speak the truth. 335. He is certainly 
as smooth a writer, if not more so, than Carlyle. 336. The ice is so strong 
and firm as you need not fear to pass over. 337. It is money moves the 
world. 338. What a beautiful flower! Let me smell of it. 339. The com- 
pany were composed of one hundred men. 340. The people has risen in its 
might and swept away all which opposed it. 

341. This was a novelty to me, for I never witnessed such a scene before. 
342. The Board of Health have ordered that the sanitary regulations are 
strictly enforced. 343. He will not yield, though his life pays the penalty 
of his obstinacy. 344. Take heed to thy thoughts, lest thou sinnest with thy 
words. 345. O that there was some chance of success ! 346. This is more 
than flesh and blood are able to endure. 347. This essay is James, the best 
scholar's of his class. 348. What was the motive and result of this move- 
ment ? 349. A green small bag has been found. 350. I can not see but what 
thee is greatly in error. 

351. I have heard yesterday that you intended to travel in Europe this sum- 
mer. 352. He was publicly reprimanded that the others may take warning. 
353. Was it a suitable occasion, I might a tale unfold. 354. If he know the 



GENERAL EXERCISES IN FALSE SYNTAX. 207 

rule, why does he ask ? 355. Though he be descended from a noble father, 
he has disgraced his name. 356. Where wert thou going when I met you? 
357. Him proving faithless, who could they trust? 358. Please excuse Theo- 
dore's lateness. 359. 1 bade him to return without delay. 360. Whom do you 
think that I am ? 

361. The Emperor of Russia is styled a Czar. 362. The event happened 
in Mary or Elizabeth's reign, I do not remember which. 363. His abilities 
as a poet's are of the highest order. 364. The Emperor of France's policy is 
at present a peaceable one. 365. Dombey's and Son's establishment is now 
closed. 366. His health was injured by him so diligently applying himself. 
367. The army move at the rate of twenty mile a day. 368. He is not as 
strict as he professes to be. 369. To profess to be sincere, and at the same 
time acting differently, is the mark of a degraded mind. 370. The fact 
cf it being them who are guilty is almost incredible. 

371. A soon termination of the troubles are anxiously looked for. 372. He 
acted conformable to the rules adopted for the governing the school. 373. 
His audience, who were composed of persons of intelligence, heartily ap- 
plauded him. 374. The ruins of the Coliseum show it to be a very extensive 
building. 375. His disciples showed him of all these things. 376. There are 
more inhabitants in London than in any city in England. 377. The com- 
munity were more than usually excited. 378. All the while the animal ap- 
proached itself nearer and nearer. 379. How freshly the lawn looks after 
the rain ! 380. After I visit Washington, I will return home. 

381. The three first specimens were selected, the three next reserved for 
future trial, and the two last unanimously rejected. 382. I have not, and 
never can consent to such a proposal. 383. He has no more to recommend 
him besides his appearance. 384. He was at last made feel by bitter experi- 
ence that vice produced misery. 385. The work was finished sooner than I 
expected it to have been. 386. This is one of those matters which is usually 
neglected. 387. If thou have the power, have mercy on us and save us. 
388. The aboriginal race of this land are fast melting away. 389. The dead 
and wounded were left on the field. 390. I had rather not accept the ap- 
pointment on these terms. 

391. Charles is one whom if you do not encourage him, he becomes easily 
disheartened. 392. I was recently in London, where I have seen Tennyson, he 
who is poet-laureate. 393. If the weather is stormy to-morrow, we will defer 
the excursion. 394. I can not conceive how he has received such a wound 
and lives. 395. They attentively listened while he explained the reason of 
bo seldom an occurrence. 396. For he hath made him to be sin for us, who 
knew no sin. 397. Knowing as you was his friend, he hoped to have ob- 
tained a favorable response. 



208 PUNCTUATION. 



PUNCTUATION. 



Punctuation treats of the points or marks which are. 
used in writing and printing. 

Marks are principally employed to divide written or printed dis- 
course into sentences, and sentences into parts, in order to render 
the meaning more intelligible. 

Marks are also employed in connection with sentences, words, 
letters, and figures, for other uses. 

The principal marks are the following : — 



Period, 


Semicolon, 


• 
9 


Interrogation Point, ? 


Comma, 


9 


Exclamation Point, ! 


Dash, 





Colon, : 


Curves, 


( ) 


Bracket 


s, [ ] 





PERIOD. 

The Period denotes a full stop, or the greatest degree 
of separation. 

I. A period must be placed at the end of every declarative 
or every imperative sentence, whether simple, complex, or 
compound. 

Examples. — " The noblest vengeance is to forgive." — " Do as I 
command you." — "Of thy unspoken word thou art master; thy 
spoken word is master of thee." 

The members of a compound sentence may be fully separated by 
the use of the period in place of a colon or a semicolon: thus, in the 
last example: — "Of thy unspoken word thou art master. Thy 
spoken word is master of thee." 

II. A period must be placed at the end of every abbre- 
viated word; as, Dr. for doctor; N. Y. for New York; nom. 
for nominative. 

If the abbreviated word occurs at the close of a full sentence, 
one period is sufficient to denote both the abbreviation and the end 
of the sentence; as, " Harrisburg is the capital of Penn." 



I 

PUNCTUATION. 209 

Some abbreviations have by common usage become words, and 
therefore require no period at the end of them ; as, Will Shakspeare ; 
Tom Moore. 

A period must be placed at the end of headings, titles, and other 
expressions, used alone and equivalent to abbreviated declarative 
sentences; as, Normal Arithmetic. — Punctuation. — Jones and Sons. 

A period is also used after figures and letters employed as figures, 
when successive facts or particulars are stated in order. Such are 
the figures used in numbering paragraphs. 

INTEKROGATION POINT. 

The Interrogation Point denotes that a question is asked, 
and, as a separating point, marks a full or a partial stop. 

The interrogation point must be placed at the end of 
every sentence, member, or clause, which contains a com- 
plete direct question. 

Examples. — "Where did you find your book?" — "If he go, will 
you accompany him? for I must stay." — " 'Am I safe now?' he 
eagerly asked." 

When several questions are contained in one sentence, and the 
meaning is not complete till the last is asked, the interrogation point 
is used only at the end; as, " Shall my neighbors be aroused, shall 
my friends be anxious, and I remain indifferent?" 

A sentence which refers to a question, without asking it, is not 
directly interrogative, and must not be closed with an interrogation 
point; as, " I asked him where he found his book." 

EXCLAMATION POINT. 

The Exclamation Point denotes that one word or more 
are used in exclamation, and, as a separating point, often 
marks a full stop. 

An exclamation point must be placed at the end of every 
sentence, member,. phrase, or word, used in exclamation or 
in earnest address. 

Examples. — "Alas! what hourly dangers risel" — " To arms! they 
come ! the Greek ! the Greek !" 

The exclamation point is not used immediately after interjections 
which are closely connected with other words; as, "Fie on thee!" 

O is never immediately followed by an exclamation point ; as, " O 

city of our God !" 

18* 



210 PUNCTUATION. 

COLON. 

The Colon denotes a degree of separation less than that 
shown by the period, and greater than that indicated by 
the semicolon. 

I. A colon may be placed between the extended mem- 
bers of a compound sentence, when they are not connected 
by conjunctions mentioned, or when their parts are sepa- 
rated by semicolons and commas. 

Examples. — " In the Bible the body is said to be more than the 
raiment, but the opinion now-a-days seems to be, that the raiment is 
more than the body: a great many people, it would seem, read this 
text, as they do others, Hebrew-wise, that is, backward." 

"We must get out of the shadow of an object to see it; we must 
recede from it, to comprehend it: so we must compare the present 
with all our past impressions, if we would make out the truth which 
is common to them all/' 

II. A colon must be placed at the end of the expressions 
as follows, the following, thus, these, these words, etc., or of 
parts containing these or their equivalents, when they intro- 
duce a series of particulars, or a direct quotation. 

Examples. — "The means devised by man to communicate his 
thoughts and feelings are the following : gestures, inarticulate sounds, 
spoken language, and written language/ 7 

" Mr. Webster supposes John Adams to have spoken these ivords: 
1 Sink or swim, live or die, survive or perish, I give my hand and my 
heart to this vote.' " 

In introducing a direct quotation of considerable length, the ex- 
pressions asfolloivs, etc., are often omitted; as, " He arose and said: 
' Mr. Chairman, I propose, etc/ " 

The colon is less used than formerly, a period or a semicolon 
taking its place. 

THE SEMICOLON. 

The Semicolon denotes a degree of separation less than 
that shown by the colon, and greater than that indicated 
by a comma. 

I. A semicolon must be placed between the members 
of a compound sentence when the connection is closer than 



PUNCTUATION. 211 

that which would require a colon, especially when the con- 
junctions are omitted. 

Examples. — " Brutes are governed by instinct; man, by his reason- 
ing faculties." — "His confidence in the success of his enterprise was 
not the idle dream of a mere enthusiast; it was founded in reason 
and based upon science." 

When the members are short and connected by conjunctions, a 
comma is usually the separating point; as, " The sword is mighty, 
but the pen is mightier." 

II. A semicolon is used in a complex sentence, to sepa- 
rate successive clauses having a common dependence upon 
one or more principal clauses. 

Example. — " If I have laid down my premises correctly; if I have 
reasoned clearly; if I have proved my assertions; how can you 
withhold your assent?" 

III. A semicolon must be placed at the end of a state- 
ment, which, without any intervening word, is followed by 
the particulars referred to, when these particulars are sepa- 
rated by commas. 

Example. — "Mankind is divided into five races; the Caucasian, 
the Mongolian, the Ethiopian, the Malay, and the American." 
Instead of the semicolon, some authors here use the colon. 

IV. A semicolon must be placed before as, when it is 
followed by an illustration. 

Example. — "That often means in order that; as, 'Live virtuously 
that you may die happy/ " 

THE COMMA. 

The Comma denotes the shortest pause, or the least 
degree of separation. < 

It is used, in general, to set off those parts of sentences, 
which, though closely connected, still need some point 
after them to mark the pauses or interruptions in the flow 
of words. 

I. A comma is used to separate the short members of 
compound sentences, when the members are connected by 
conjunctions. 



212 PUNCTUATION. 

Example. — •' There was a pause of death-like stillness, and the 
bold heart of Macpherson grew faint." 

II. A comma is used to separate the clauses of complex 
sentences, unless the connection is very close, and the quali- 
fying clause or clauses are very short. 

Examples. — " Nothing was heard save the plash of the agitated 
lake, as it beat up against the black rocks which girt it in." — " The 
ships were ordered to lie to, lest they should run upon rocks." 

III. Inverted (or transposed) clauses, phrases, and ad- 
juncts, must usually be set off by commas. 

Examples. — " When he came, I know not." — " Of all vices, im- 
purity is one of the most detestable." 

"When the connection is very close, the inverted phrase is not thus 
set off; as, "In Rome he dwelt." 

IV. Parenthetical clauses, phrases, adjuncts, and words, 
that is, those clauses, etc. which occur between other parts 
and interrupt the connection, must be set off by commas. 

Examples. — " The clergy, as it has been before remarked, were 
the most intelligent and wealthy portion of the population." — "We 
may, generally speaking, depend upon this rule." — "This movement 
was, without doubt, demanded by public opinion." — " I shall, never- 
theless, make good my promise." 

Qualifying phrases and adjuncts, neither inverted nor paren- 
thetical, may be set off by commas, when not very closely connected, 
for the sake of prominence or emphasis ; as, " These seamen had 
become habituated to the storms of the ocean, by battling tempests in 
the Northern seas around Iceland, in their yearly fishing excursions." 

A relative clause closely connected is not usually separated from 
the word which it qualifies; as, " The men who persevere, are the 
men who succeed." 

V. Similar parts of speech, or similar expressions con- 
stituting a series, must be separated by commas. 

Examples. — " A great mind, a great heart, a great orator, and a 
great career, have been consigned to history." — " He was a man 
patient, sober, honest, and industrious." 

VI. A complex subject consisting of several parts 
which require commas between them, or one ending with 
a verb, must be separated from its predicate by a comma. 



PUNCTUATION. 213 

Examples. — " Ranges and groups of lofty mountains, deep val- 
leys, through which rush rapid streams, and numberless lakes set 
in the midst of grand old forests, are the characteristics of this 
primitive region." — " Whatever is, is right." 

When a clause introduced by that, a quoted sentence, or a long 
infinitive phrase, is used as a subject, it must be set off from its 
predicate. 

Examples. — " That peace and righteousness shall ultimately pre- 
vail over all the earth, is the belief of every pious heart." — " ' Know 
thyself/ was the response of the Delphic Oracle." — "To seal their 
testimony to the truth with the surrender of their lives, was often 
the lot of the early Christians." 

Words taken in pairs must have a comma after each pair. 

Example. — " The young and the old, the rich and the poor, the 
wise and the foolish, here meet on a common level." 

VII. When a verb is omitted to avoid repetition, a 
eomma takes its place. 

Example. — " Reading makes a full man ; conversation, a ready 
man ; and writing, an exact man." 

VIII. Words or clauses denoting opposition of mean- 
ing, or contrast, must be separated by commas. 

Examples. — " Return a kindness, not an injury." — " Brief, but 
decisive, was the struggle." — " Did he act wisely, or unwisely?" 

Correlative clauses, unless very short, are usually set off by 
commas, but words, phrases, or short clauses connected by than, are 
not set off, unless for the sake of emphasis; as, "The farther we 
advanced into the interior, the greater our difficulties became." — 
" Nothing is clearer than the truth of this statement." 

IX. An appositional phrase must be set off by commas 
from the word or the words which it qualifies. 

Example. — " Cicero, the great Roman orator, was slain to gratify 
the revenge of Antony." 

Nouns in apposition, except with the pronoun I, are not set off by 
commas ; as, " Cicero the orator was pursued and slain." — " We con- 
suls are merciful." — "I, James Brown, do solemnly affirm." 

X. The following are also set off by commas : — • 

1. Words or phrases used independently; as, "My friend, you are 
wrong." — "Charles, farewell." — "To say the least, it was unfair." 

2. Absolute phrases ; as, "Her health failing, her disposition 
became more and more gloomy." 



1J14 PUNCTUATION. 

3. An equivalent word or expression introduced by or; as, " Arith 
metic, or the science of numbers, was introduced into Europe by 
the Arabians." 

4. Repeated words or phrases; as, "'Treason, treason, treason,' re- 
echoed from every part of the house." 

5. A clause introducing a short quotation, ending it, or separating 
its parts ; as, "' Truth/ said the speaker, 'must be our sole aim.'", 

6. Whatever clause, phrase, or word would occasion ambiguity, 
if not set off by a comma; as, "I have seven brave sons, and 
daughters." 

[The limits of this work prevent the insertion of exercises upon the use 
of the points just explained. 

For exercises, recourse must be had to suitable passages from authors, or 
to the extracts from their works, contained in the various " Readers" in use 
in our schools. These passages should be dictated to the pupils, and the 
latter should be required to insert the appropriate points.] 

THE DASH. 

The Lash is used to denote a change in the construction 
of a sentence, or in its meaning,— an interruption, or a 
hesitation. 

Examples. — "Honor — 'tis an empty bubble." — "I visited him 
yesterday — what a sight!" — "If we go — why, then — but we will 
talk of that anon; — speak on." — "Have mercy on me! I — I — I'll 
confess it all." 

The dash is also used to set off words and clauses used paren- 
thetically ; as, " I have seen thousands — or, more properly, tens of 
thousands — feeding together on the rich grass of the prairies." 

The dash is often placed after other points to give greater promi- 
nence to the separation denoted by them. 

CURVES. 

Curves, or parenthesis marks, are used to enclose a word, 
a phrase, or a clause, either explanatory or suggested by 
the main idea, which is introduced in such a way as not to 
interrupt the connection of the parts of the sentence. 

Examples. — " The disposition of our most eminent and most 
virtuous men (alas ! that it should be so) to keep aloof from public 
affairs, is a serious fact." — " The bright moon poured in her light on 



PUNCTUATION. 215 

tomb and monument, on pillar, wall, and arch, and most of all (it 
seemed to them) upon her quiet grave." 

The parts which are enclosed by curves must be punctuated like 
others ; but usually no point is placed before the latter curve, unless 
the words form a full sentence, or require an exclamation or an 
interrogation mark. 

Curves are not employed so much as formerly ; dashes take their 
place ; as, " The great northern kingdoms of Europe — Russia, Den- 
mark, Sweden, and Norway — did not then attract much attention." 

BRACKETS. 

Brackets are used to enclose words necessary to explain 
a preceding word or sentence, or to correct an error. 

Examples. — " The finder [James] has been rewarded." — "Wash- 
ington was born on the twenty-second [the eleventh, according to old 
style] day of February, 1732." — " He said how [that] he would not dis- 
appoint us. " 

OTHER MARKS USED IN WRITING. 

The Apostrophe ( ' ) is used to denote the omission of a letter or 
of letters; as, Til, for I will; — e'er, for ever. 

The apostrophe is also used to denote the possessive case of nouns, 
to show that certain words are used as verbs ; and with s to form 
the plural of letters, figures, or signs, taken as nouns ; as, "Egypt's 
queen ;" — " He if's and bui's." — " He makes his i's and j's alike." 

The Quotation Marks ( " " ) are used to enclose the exact words 
quoted from another speaker or writer. 

Example. — "Let these words, be remembered: ' Touch not, taste 
not, handle not.'" 

A quotation within a quotation must be enclosed by single marks. 

The Hyphen ( - ) is used to unite the words which constitute the 
parts of a compound word not regarded as a permanent compound ; 
as, path-finder ; ox-eyed. 

It is also used to unite the words which maybe temporarily taken 
as a single expression ; as, " Our ever-to-be-lamented friend." 

It is employed also to mark the division of a word into its syllables; 
as, in-com-pre-hen-si-bil-i-ty. 

The Ellipsis Marks ( — ), ( * * * ) are used to denote the omission 

of some letters or words ; as, K* ** g, for King; L d P », 

for Lord Palmerston. 

The Caret (A) is used in manuscript to. show that something 
omitted in its proper place may be found above, :>r in the margin. 



216 PUNCTUATION — CAPITAL LETTERS. 

The Brace (<~*-~>) is used, to connect two or more different words 
or expressions with one common term. 

The Ditto, or Double Comma ( „ ), is used instead of repeating the 
word or the words above it. 

The Index ( Jggg" 5 ) points to something special or remarkable. 

The Asterism ( \* ) directs attention to a particular passage. 

The Section ( \ ) denotes a division of a book. 

The Paragraph ( \ ) denotes the beginning of a new subject. This 
mark is now rarely used in books. The beginning of a new subject 
is now shown by setting a new line back from the margin. 

The Cedilla is a mark placed under the letter c ($), to show that 
it is to be sounded soft like s ; as, fagade. 

The Tilde is a mark placed over the letter n (ft), to show that the 
following vowel sound is to be preceded by that of y; as, caiion. 

The Vowel Marks are the following : — 

The Diaeresis ("), placed over the latter of two vowels to denote 
that they are separated ; as, aerial. 

The Macron ( - ), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a long 
sound ; as, over. 

The Breve ( v), placed over a vowel to denote that it has a short 
sound; as, cover. 

The Accents are the following: — 

The Acute (/"), used to mark an accented syllable; as, ac'cent; 
and to denote when the voice should rise in tone. 

The Grave ( x ), denoting the falling of the voice. 

The Circumfies ( ^ ), denoting that the voice must both rise and 
fall in pronouncing the same syllable. 

The Asterisk ( * ), the Dagger ( f ), the Double Dagger ( J ), and the 
Parallel ( || ), are used as marks of reference; also the Section ( \ ), 
and the Paragraph ( \ ), — and small letters and figures, which, when 
thus used, are called superiors. 

For other marks and their uses, dictionaries must be consulted. 

CAPITAL LETTEES. 
Most words begin with small letters) but the following 
must commence with capitals : — 

1. The first word of every sentence. 

2. The first word of every line of poetry. 

3. Proper names, and words derived from them; as, America, Ame- 
rican; Dane, Danish; Wi?\field Scott; Broadway. 



FIGURES. 217 

4. All names applied to the Deity; as, God; the Supreme Ruler; 
the Holy Spirit; Providence. 

5. Common names directly personified; as, "Cease, rude Winter" 

6. Words used as titles of office or honor, when prefixed to proper 
names; as, Chief Justice Chase; General Grant. 

7. The first word of a direct quotation; as, "Remember and 
practise this precept: ' Love thy neighbor as thyself.' " 

8. Words or expressions denoting remarkable events, or things 
long celebrated; as, the Reformation; the Golden Age; the Magna 
Charta; the Norman Conquest. 

9. When books are mentioned, the principal words in their titles; 
as, Swift's Tale of a Tub. 

The pronoun I, and the interjection 0, are always capitals. 
Title-pages, heads of chapters and pages, side titles, etc., are 
usually composed wholly of capitals. 



FIGURES. 



A Figure, in grammar, is an intentional departure 
fi tm the common mode of spelling, forming, constructing, 
o./ applying a word. 

CLASSES OP PIGUEES. 
Figures may be divided into four classes; — Figures of 
O thography, Figures of Etymology, Figures of Syntax, 
aci Figures of Rhetoric. 

FIGURES OF ORTHOGRAPHY. 

A Figure of Orthography is an intentional departure from 
the common mode of spelling a word. 

The figures of orthography are two; — Mimesis and Archaism. 

1. Mimesis is an imitation of the false pronunciation of a word by 
coriospondent spelling; as, "Wall, 'twus wus 'n t'other — it nuver 
stru k onst." 

2. Archaism is the spelling of a word according to ancient usage; 
as, ' In my tyme my poore father was as diligent to teach me to shote 
as t . learne anye other thynge, and so I thynke other menne did 
thyi children." 

IS 



218 FIGURES. 

FIGURES OP ETYMOLOGY. 

A Figure of Etymology is an intentional departure from 
the common mode of forming a word. 

The principal figures of etymology are eight ; — Aphseresis, Pros- 
thesis, Syncope, Apocope, Paragoge, Diseresis, Synaeresis, and 
Tmesis. 

1. Aphaeresis is the taking of a letter or of letters from the beginning 
of a word; as, 'bove, for above; 7 gan, for began; 'neath, for beneath. 

2. Prosthesis is the prefixing of a letter or of letters to a word; as, 
adown, for down; beloved, for loved. 

3. Syncope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the middle 
of a word; as, e'er, for ever; ev'ry, for every; hap'ning, for happening. 

4. Apocope is the taking of a letter or of letters from the end of a 
word; as, tho\ for though; ope, for open; yon, for yonder. 

5. Paragoge is the suffixing of a syllable to a word; as, vasty, for 
vast; withouten, for without. 

6. Diaeresis is the separating of two vowels which might otherwise 
form a diphthong ; as cooperate, or co-operate; reincur, or re-incur. 

7. Synssresis is the blending or contracting of two syllables or 
words into one ; as, talk'st for talkest; thou'rt, for thou art. 

8. Tmesis is the separating of the parts of a compound word by 
the insertion of a word; as, To us ward; "On which side soever he 
turned." 

FIGUEES OF SYNTAX. 

A Figure of Syntax is an intentional departure from 

common usage in the grammatical construction of a word. 

The principal figures of syntax are five ; — Ellipsis, Pleonasm, Syl- 
lepsis, Hyperbaton, and Enallage. 

1. Ellipsis is the omission of words necessary to complete the sense 
and construction of other words; as, "Bring [to) me the book;"— 
"I knew (that) he would come." 

Ellipsis applies to all the parts of speech, to phrases, and to clauses. 
By ellipsis needless repetition is avoided, and language is rendered 
more pleasing and forcible. 

2. Pleonasm is the use of more words than are absolutely necessary 
to express an idea; as, "I saw it with my own eyes." — "For the 
Egyptians, whom ye have seen to-day, ye shall see them no more, 
for ever." 



t 

FIGURES. 219 

Pleonasm is often used to emphasize, to complete a line of poetry, 
or to round a sentence. The improper use of it, however, weakens 
the force of expression, and is a great blemish. 

3. Syllepsis is the using of words according to the intended mean- 
ing, and not according to the literal signification: thus, when it is 
said, "He carried away captive the whole village, regardless of their 
supplications," " the whole village," meaning all the inhabitants, is 
represented by their and not by its. 

4. Hyperbaton, or Inversion, is the transposition of words, phrases, 
and clauses, from their natural order; as, "Of arms I sing," for, " I 
sing of arms." — "As I command you, do," for, "Do as I command 
you." 

5. Enallage is the use of one part of speech for another, — princi- 
pally of an adjective for an adverb, or of one variation of a word for 
another; as, "As when the sun new risen." — " Let us instant go." — 
"Tending to wild," — for, "Tending to wildness;" — " Thinks I to 
myself." 

FIGURES OF RHETORIC. 

A Figure of Rhetoric is an intentional departure from 
common usage in the application of words, in order to im- 
part greater variety, strength, and beauty, to discourse. 

The principal figures of rhetoric are the following: — Simile, Meta- 
phor, "Allegory, Personification, Metonomy, Synecdoche, Hyperbole, 
Apostrophe, Vision, Interrogation, Exclamation, Antithesis, Climax, 
Irony, Paralipsis, and Onomatopoeia. 

Some of these figures, namely, those which apply to words only, 
are called tropes (from a Greek word meaning a turn), because the 
word is turned from its usual application. 

1. A Simile is a direct comparison, commonly shown by the use 
of as, as — so, or like ; as, " Be ye wise as serpents." — " Her hair was 
like the sunshine." — " As cold water to a thirsty soul, so is good news 
from a far country." 

2. A Metaphor is the applying of the name of one object to another 
on account of some resemblance between them ; as, " Thy word is a 
lamp unto my feet and a light unto my path." — "Nature was to him 
a closed book." 

A simile is converted into a metaphor by the omission of the term 
of comparison ; on the other hand, a metaphor may become a simile 
by the use of like, etc. 



220 FIGURES. 

3. An Allegory is a succession of metaphors, or of sentences con- 
taining metaphorical language, the whole forming a narration of 
imaginary events, designed to exhibit and enforce some moral truth. 

Bunyan's " Pilgrim's Progress" is an extended allegory. Fables 
and parables are short allegories. 

4. Personification is a figure by which inanimate objects, or inferior 
animals, are represented as having the qualities of persons; as, 
"The raven cried to the crow, * Avaunt, blackamoor !' " — "While 
hriglit-eyed Science watches round," — "Has War trod o'er them with 
his foot of fire ?" 

5. Metonomy is a change of names, or the use of the name of one 
object for that of another to which the former bears some relation. 

Thus, the name of the cause is used for that of the effect, or of the 
effect for that of the cause ; of the container for that of the thing 
contained, etc. ; as, " Spare my gray hairs [old age]." — " The country 
[the people] responded to the call." — " Embroidered garments are 
mentioned in Homer [Homer's writings]." 

6. Synecdoche is the use of the name of the whole for that of a 
part, or of the name of a part for that of the whole ; as, " My son, 
give me thine heart;" — that is, "thy affections." — "Ten thousand 
Jleets sweep over thee in vain." 

7. Hyperbole is a figure by which, to heighten the effect, much 
more k asserted than can be true ; as, " It is whiter than snow." — 

" That should move 
The stones of Rome to rise and mutiny." — 

" Your words, they rob the Hybla bees 
And leave them honeyless." 

8. Apostrophe is a sudden turning aside from the subject of 
thought or of discourse to address some person or thing; as, "Oh, 
Judgment! thou art fled to brutish beasts!" — "0 the depth of the 
riches both of the wisdom and knowledge of God !" 

9. Vision is a figure which represents what is past, absent, or 
imaginary, as actually present ; as, 

" For a field of the dead rushes red on my sight, 
And the clans of Culloden are scattered in fight." 

10. Interrogation is a mode of questioning, used, not to seek in- 
formation, but rather to express a strong affirmation or denial ; as, 

'He that planted the ear, shall he not hear?" — " Can the fig-tree, 
my brethren, bear olive-berries ? either a vine, figs ?" 



* 

FIGUEES. 221 

11. Exclamation is the sudden or unexpected expression of words 
denoting strong emotion ; as, " What a piece ot^ork is man! How 
noble in reason ! How infinite in faculties I" 

12. Antithesis is the placing of opposite things, or thoughts, in 
contrast with each other, so that the difference may be more clearly- 
seen ; as, " Man proposes, but God disposes." — " A soft answer 
turneth away wrath, but grievous words stir up anger." 

13. Climax is the arrangement of words, phrases, and clauses, so 
that there shall be gradual rising from the least to the greatest in 
importance ; as, " They fought, they bled, they died for freedom." — 
" Days, months, years, and ages, shall circle away." 

When the arrangement is such as shows a gradual decrease in 
importance, the figure is called Anticlimax; as, "Now if any man 
build upon this foundation gold, silver, precious stones, wood, hay, 
stubble ; every man's work shall be made manifest." 

14. Irony is a mode of expression by which we are understood 
really to censure what we seem to approve or defend ; as, 

" For Brutus is an honorable man ; 
So are they all honorable men." 

15. Paralipsis, or Omission, is the pretended omission on the part of 
the speaker or writer of that which he, at the same time, really 
mentions ; as, " I do not speak of my adversary's scandalous rapa- 
city ; I take no notice of his brutal conduct ; I pass by his treachery 
and malice." 

16. Onomatopoeia is a correspondence of sound with sense; as, 
"Click, click, goes the clock; clack, clack, goes the mill." — 

"Up the high hill he heaves a huge round stone." 

REMARKS. 

Many more figures than the foregoing could be named and defined, 
were it deemed necessary. 

The use of figures, particularly of ellipsis, pleonasm, hyperbaton, 
enallage, and those dependent upon changes in the forms of words, 
is much more common in poetry than in prose. 

Certain figures or modes of expression are allowable only in 
poetry ; it is the employment of these which largely contributes to 
that peculiar style which distinguishes poetic diction. 

19* 



Part Fourth. 
PROSODY. 



Prosody treats of Verse, and teaches how to arrange 
words according to the principles of Versification. 

"Written discourse, or composition, is divided into two kinds ; 
Prose and Verse. 

Prose is that kind of composition in which language is used in its 
ordinary or natural forms, with reference primarily to sense. 

VERSE. 

Verse is that kind of composition in which the words 
are placed in lines containing a definite number of accented 
and unaccented syllables arranged according to fixed rules. 

Verse (from the Latin word " verto," meaning, I turn) is so 
called because, when one line is finished, the writer turns back and 
"begins another. 

Verse is the form in which poetry, or the language of imagination 
and exalted emotion, is oftenest expressed. 

The term "verse," in its narrowest sense, means a single line 
of poetry, or a verse. 

A stanza is a number of lines combined to form a division of a 
poem or a song. This number depends upon the pleasure of the writer ; 
but usually a stanza consists of four, six, or eight lines. 

KINDS OF VERSE. 

Verse is of two kinds; Khyme and Blank Verse. 
Hhyme is that kind of verse in which the lines end with 
syllables having a similar sound ; as, — 

" Her eyes as stars of twilight fair; 
Like twilight's too, her dusky hair/' 
Lines ending thus are called rhymes. 



PEOSODY. 223 

Two lines rhyming together form a Couplet; three, a Triplet, 

Blank Verse is verse without rhyme; as, — 

" Till the moon 
Rising in cloudless majesty, at length 
Apparent queen, unveiled her peerless light, 
And o'er the dark her silver mantle threw '* 

VEKSIFICATIOK 
Versification is the art of making verse. 
The parts of which verse is composed are called Feet. 

FEET. 

A Foot (or Measure) is a portion of a line consisting of 
two or more syllables, combined according to Accent. 

Accent is the special force of voice with which a certain 
syllable or certain syllables of a word are uttered. 

Accent in English verse corresponds to Quantity in Greek or Latin 
verse : thus, while the latter is made according to the quantity of syl- 
lables, English is composed wholly according to accent. 

By the Quantity of a syllable is meant the relative time employed 
in pronouncing it. 

Syllables are long, short, or variable. Every accented syllable is 
regarded as long, and every unaccented syllable as short. 

In all the following examples of verse an accented syllable is 
distinguished by a straight line ( — ) placed over it ; an unaccented, 
"by a curved line («) placed over it; as, sweetest; content. 

In poetry, monosyllabic words receive accent although without it 
in prose ; as, — ■ 

"Come and trip it as you go. 



*H » 



KINDS OF FEET. 

The Kinds of Feet most used in English verse are the 
eight following ; of which four consist each of two sylla- 
bles, and four, of three : — 

I. Feet of Two Syllables, 

1. The Iambus, — a short syllable and a long ; as, contain. 

2. The Trochee, — a long syllable and a short ; as, hopeless. 

3. The Spondee, — two long syllables ; as, brave sires. 

4. The Pyrrhic, — two short syllables ; as, (ho^e)-less-ly. 



224 PEOSODY. 

II. Feet of Three Syllables. 

1. The Anapest, — two short syllables and one long ; as, appertain. 

2. The Dactyl, — one long syllable and two short ; as, earliest. 

3. The Amphibrach, — one short, one long, and one short ; as, forever. 

4. The Tribrach, — three short syllables ; as, (mter)^mndble. 

Of these feet, the Iambus, the Trochee, the Anapest, 
and the Dactyl, are the most important. 

A line may be wholly composed of feet belonging to any one of 
these kinds ; such a line is called Pure. 

The other feet serve to vary the measure, but seldom of themselves 
form whole lines. A line composed of different kinds of feet is called 
Mixed. Most poems contain mixed lines. 

DENOMINATIONS OF VEESE. 
Verse is named according to the kind of foot which pre- 
vails in a line, and at the same time according to the 
number of feet contained in it. 

I. A line in which iambuses prevail, is called an Iambic 
line ; that in which trochees prevail, a Trochaic ; that in 
which anapests, an Anapestic ; and that in which dactyls, 
a Dactylic. 

II. A line containing one foot or measure is called a 
Monometer ; a line containing two, a Dimeter ; one con- 
taining three, a Trimeter ; one containing four, a Tetra- 
meter ; one containing five, a Pentameter ; one containing 
six, a Hexameter ; one containing seven, a Heptameter ; 
and one containing eight, an Octometer. 

Therefore verse is distinguished as Iambic Monometer, Iambic Di- 
meter, etc. ; Trochaic Monometer, Trochaic Dimeter, etc. ; Anapestic 
Monometer, etc. ; Dactylic Monometer, etc. 

The term Metre is applied to any of these varieties of verse. 

Scanning is the dividing of a line into the feet or mea- 
sures of which it is composed. 

Lines are deficient, complete, or redundant. 

A line in which a syllable is wanting is said to be Catalectic; a 
line whose measures are all complete is said to be Acatalectic; and 
one in which a syllable is redundant is called a Eypermeter. 



I 

PKOSODY. 225 

IAMBIC VERSE. 

Iambic verse in its different metres embraces by far the 
largest portion of English poetry. In this verse, the accent 
is placed upon the second syllable, the fourth, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 
No more 
Deplore. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
The gold | en day 
Now fades | away. 

Three feet, or Trimeter. 

The day | is past|and gone; 
The eve|ning shades | appear. 

Four feet, or Tetrameter. 
The smiles | of joy, j the tears | of woe, 
Deceit|ful shine, | deceit ]ful flow. 

Five feet, or Pentameter. 
The serjvice past, | around | the pi|ous man, 
With read|y zeal|each honjest rus]tic ran. 

Six feet, or Hexameter. 
Nor wear|my hours] away, | but seek|the her|mit's cell; 
'Tis he|my doubt|can clear, |perhaps| my care|dispel. 

Seven feet, or Heptameter. 
The meijanchol|y days | are come,|the sad|dest of |the year; 
Of wail|ing winds|and na|ked woods|and mead|ows brownjand sere. 

Examples of Iambic Hypermeter. 
The redundant syllable is unaccented or short. 
Confid|ing. 

With cease | less mo|tion. 
Some ban|quet hall|desert|ed. 
She trips] along| with blos|soms lad|en. 
And sil|ver cords] again | to earth [have won | me. 
Could in I that man|gled corpse | have traced] the proud | Ores ]tes. 
Auro|ra rijses o'er|the hills, | by grace|ful Hours | attend] ed. 

Blank verse is usually written in iambic pentameters. 
Iambic pentameters, either with or without rhyme, constitute He- 
roic Verse, — so called because used to describe the deeds of heroes. 



226 PROSODY. 

This metre is often varied by the use of trochees, anapests, etc., in 
certain places, instead of iambuses, and a spondee frequently occurs 
in the first foot. 

TROCHAIC VERSE. 

In trochaic verse, the accent is placed upon the first . 
syllable, the third, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 

Beauty 

Charms us. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
Storms are [ trailing, 
Winds are j wailing. 

Three feet, or Trimeter. 
In her | palace | bower 
Sat a | maiden | lonely. 

Four feet, or Tetrameter. 
Heroes] lived and] died to |gain it; 
Living, | dying, | we'll main | tain it. 

Eight feet, or Octometer. 
Once up] on a | midnight j dreary,] while 1 1 pondered, [weak and] weary, 
While I|nodded,|nearly|napping,]sudden|ly there|came ajtapping. 

Examples of Trochaic Hypermeter. 
The redundant syllable is long. 

Other|joys Are but| toys. 

From one|lonely|cloud. 
Sorrow|like the | desert] rain. 
Fairer, | sweeter | flowers | bloom in | beauty | there. 
Boftly|sweet the|song is | stealing, | softly | through the]night ajfar. 

ANAPESTIC VERSE. 

In anapestic verse, when pure, the accent is placed upon 
the third syllable, the sixth, etc. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 
Then again 
Came the rain. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
There's a, cry, | and a shout, 
And a tcrlrible rout. 



I 

PEOSODY. 227 

Three feet, or Trimeter. 
Not a shrub | that I heard | her admire, 
But I hast|ed and plantjed It there. 

Four feet, or Tetrameter. 
If thine eye| should grow dim, | and thy cau|tion depart, 
"Look aloft/'jand be flrm|and be fear|less of heart 

Examples of Anapestic Hypermeter. 
To the charge! |llke the rush | of the o|cean. 

And their ju|bilee shout|shall be soft[en'd with sad|ness. 
DACTYLIC VEESB. 

In dactylic verse, the accent is placed upon the first 
syllable, the fourth, etc. 

Dactylic verse is not often pure, that is, wholly composed of dactyls. 
A spondee, or a trochee, or one long syllable, usually forms the last foot. 

EXAMPLES. 

One foot, or Monometer. 

Fatherless, 
Motherless. 

Monometer, Hypermeter. 
Singing a|lone 
Under the | sea. 

Two feet, or Dimeter. 
Take her up | tenderly, 
Fashioned so | slenderly. 

Trimeter, Hypermeter. 
Over the|mountain and[over the|hlll, 
Lightly and | brightly thou |hoverest| still. 

Tetrameter, Hypermeter. 
0! shall I|never be|free from this | heart-crushing] chain? 
Shall the fond| dreams of my|youth be a|round me no|more? 

Six feet, or Hexameter. 

Hail tSthe | herald whtfse | cloud-cleaving | pinifin frc5m | earth can de|liv§r mS! 
Nothing be | low from thS | high train 5f | bards and 6f | heroes shall | sever me. 

Dactylic hexameter constituted the heroic verse of the ancient Greeks 
and Romans. In it, a spondee or a dactyl might form any foot except 
the fifths which was usually a dactyl, and the sixth, which was always 
a spondee. • 



228 



PROSODY. 



EXAMPLES OF AMPHIBRAIC VERSE. 

In amphibraic lines, the accent is placed upon the second 
syllable, the fifth, etc. 

Our forests, J our fountains, 

Our hamlets | and mountains. 
There Is a|bleak desert| where daylight] grows weary 
Of wasting|its smile on | a region | so dreary. 

MIXED VERSE. 

The mingling of different kinds of feet in the same line 
is quite frequent; so also is the use of different metres in 
the same poem. By these means a pleasing variety is given 
to the flow of verse. 

EXAMPLES. 

Losing | the time | beneath | the green | wood shade. 
Softly|sweet in \Lydian\ measures. 

The gem|may be broke 
By man|y a, stroke, 
But nothing | can cloud | its na|tive ray. 

POETIC PAUSES. 
A Pause is a suspension of the voice in reading or 
in speaking. Two pauses, besides those required by the 
sense, belong to verse, — the Final and the Caesural. 

The Final Pause is that which occurs at the end of the line, whether 
required by the sense or not. The CasSTiral Pause is that which is 
made within the line near the middle. 

These pauses add much to the proper delivery of verse. Long lines 
may have two or more cassural pauses. 

Examples of Pauses. 
Can storied urn|| or animated bust| 

Back | to its mansion 1 1 call the fleeting breath? 
Can Honor's voice 1 1 provoke the silent dust, 

Or flattery 1 1 soothe the dull|cold ear of Death? 

THE END. 



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